How to Secure ESP32 Firmware and Flash Memory on ESP-IDF Framework
, mainly related to of Boot sectors.
The two main security features on ESP32 are called Secure-Boot and flash security, also known as Flash-Encryption.
What eFUSE Blocks in ESP32?
This OTP memory block is divided into 4-block of 256-bits each.
Because of the OTP memory block, there is no software present to read out those memory blocks.
One and only ESP32 hardware can read and validate the Security features.
What is Flash Encryption? How to Enable it on ESP32?
is a security feature for the ESP32 provided by the ESP-IDF by Espressif System to protect the flash memory.
Flash encryption is encrypting the contents of ESP32’s SPI flash memory and when this feature is enabled, the following types of data are encrypted by default:
Firmware Bootloader
Partition Table
“appᾠtype partitions or Application partitions
Any partition marked with an “encryptedᾠflag in the partition table is also encrypted.
In ESP-IDF projects, users can easily enable the Flash Encryption from the project configuration by the
idf.py menuconfig
After open the ESP32 project config menu, now navigate to
“Security Features” -->
“Enable flash encryption on boot” -->
“Enable usage mode (Development(NOT SECURE))ᾠ/ “Enable usage mode (Release)ᾼ/strong>
In flash encryption there are two modes:
Development Mode: In this mode, the ESP32 flash memory partitions are all encrypted and open for modification and are also accessible to readout flash by the UART.
Release Mode: This mode is especially recommended for the manufacturing and production stages.
In this mode, the readout of the flash by the UART/JTAG is totally blocked and new firmware can only be updated by over-the-air(OTA).
When the flash encryption is enabled, the binaries of the current code flash into the ESP32’s memory as a plain text file.
But after completion of the flash process, on the first boot of the ESP32, the device itself encrypted each and every upper mention partition, one by one by using the AES flash encryption key which is stored into the eFUSE-BLK1 at the time of flash.
After encrypting the partition the ESP32 device restarted itself and processed with the programmed logic.
The ESP32’s flash execution process decrypts the flash memory data when the ESP32’s execution unit tries to read and for the writing process, the flash execution process encrypts the data before writing into the flash memory.
What is Secure-Boot? How to Enable it on ESP32?
For enabling the Flash Encryption, in the same steps we can enable the Secure-boot from the project menuconfig.
“Security Features” -->
“Enable hardware Secure Boot in bootloaderᾼ/strong>
How Secure-boot works?
When the ESP32 device is booted up, then ESP32 hardware’s trusted rom or we said the 1st stage bootloader runs verification with RSA-3072 based secure-boot key on the software bootloader and then the software bootloader verifies the application firmware with the same signature key and start the application.
Conclusion
The ESP32 comes with a secure environment [Secure-boot & Flash-Encryption], which we need to enable while flashing the code.
For more security, we need to enable both of them.
article/why-do-we-need-differential-pair-routing-and-how-to-use-it-in-your-next-design
Why do we need Differential Pair Routing and How can you use it for your next PCB Design?
, it is important to know why we should take special attention to differential pair layouts.
There are lots of components that take differential inputs.
Thereare many componentsthat use differential input.
This is a transmission signal topology that takes the same input in the balanced form in a negative (inverted) and noninverted input.
Let's take an example.
See the below image of the USB signal coming from the USB port to the targeted component that uses the USB signal.
The USB signal came from two different signal lines denoted as USB_DATA_P+ and USB_DATA_N-.
This is interesting, why we should use two different signal lines which includethe cost of one additional wire, additional assembly, and additional effort to make this? There is a strong reason for that.
(only difference is AC has positive and negative both state changes whereas this square wave does not go negative or less than zero).So, when something is fast, changes in the magnitude of voltage fast, it is vulnerable to be attacked by noises.
Such a critical line, having critical datais very crucial for the sender and the receiver device to respond very fast yet having lots of noises makes the total transmission line useless.
In a few cases, especially USB, microphone, Ethernet uses very long wires makingit difficult to fight with EMI and RF noises.
are used.
Now, in the same scenario, let's break the USB signal into two-part.
One is having the USB signal and the other one is having the inverted form of the same USB signal.
So, it is now USB_DATA and - USB_DATA.
Now, if those two signals come together, they will both receive the same level of noise.
So, adding noise on both signal (USB_DATA + Noise) and (-USB_DATA + Noise).
When the receiver differentiates these two signals, the noise automatically gets canceled, let's see how.
Receiver signal = (USB_DATA + Noise)- (-USB_DATA + Noise)
= USB_DATA + Noise + USB_DATA - Noise
=2USB_DATA
Now, dividing the data by 2, the receiver could get the actual USB data.
What an excellent way to eliminate noise while having a long transmission line.
Differential pairs are important for many components and communication protocols.
Few examples are,USB, ETHERNET, OP-AMP, COMPARATORS, etc.
Now, we know what a differential pair is in-circuit design-related aspects, we now need to know how this technique can effectively be used in PCB design.
From the above, two important characteristics or parameters can be concluded about the differential pair routing:
They always need to be routed together.
They need to have the same length as the receiver device needs to receive both inverted and noninverted data at the same time.
How to route Differential Pair Signals?
and know that it is a pair of tightly coupled carriers;it is important to know how to route this.
The signal always needs to be coupled, routed together, so it is important to route the traces together.
Much modern design software such as EasyEDA, Eagle, Altium has the feature inbuilt to route the differential pair signal.
You need to identify and tell the software that this is a differential pair signal.
For example, in Eagle PCB Design Software, you could route differential pair signals from the user tool, if you named the signal this way.
In the above image, the name of the signal uses _N and _P suffixes.
This tells the Eagle that those are differential pair signals.
Now, if you choose the route differential pair routing option from the board layout, you could route the differential pair signal on the actual board.
The image given below shows the differential pair routing.
You can easily notice that thelength is matched perfectly.
The length of _N and _P are the same compared to 779.05192mil (One is slightly smaller in length with 0.3% variation which can be accepted for USB data line).
On the Altium, this differential routing can be selected using diff pair symbols and routing the lines on the PCB using the routing tool.
we can look at some of the advantages and disadvantages of the process.
Differential pairs do not have high common-mode noise.
This type of signalgenerally has a low return path through the grounding plane, So, the signal loss due to error in the ground return path can be eliminated.
Differential pairs increase the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
As they are routed close together, outside noise hits the signals both at the same time with the same amount of noise, thus the chance of noise rejection increases.
It can be routed inside the analog/ digital planes and noisy power boundaries.
If routed correctly, it reduces the EMI on the signal.
Requires careful routing procedure and careful routing considerations about length, space, and impedance.
If not routed correctly, they can cause trouble and could inject a significant amount of noise into the circuit.
When routing the differential pair, always balance the traces
Some special types of differential pairs require special attention to the impedance matching facility inside the PCB routing.
The width, spacing, and thickness of the routing need to be matched in such cases.
So, a good amount of Impedance control knowledge is required.
If changing layers for one signal is required, it is good to change both signal layers at the same time.
Routing one signal on one layer and the other signal on another layer is a bad practice where the length of via affects signal balancing.
article/role-of-iot-in-covid-19-vaccine-distribution
How IoT is Helping in Safe COVID-19 Vaccine Delivery?
A lot has changed across the globe in the past one year.
The entire planet is going through a peace crisis due to the pandemic that has shaken the world to its core.
It was mid-month of March last year when a life-threatening deadly Covid-19 virus took a toll on people’s lives.
The second wave was all the more deadlier!
When the COVID-19 pandemic hit the world badly, the health sector and pharma companies geared up and started working on finding the solution.
And the solution was vaccines.
Various government agencies and healthcare organizations are working on vaccine administration.
However, there are many challenges yet to be addressed; ensuring rapid and effective distribution of vaccines being one of them.
Tracking, operating, and managing vaccines ensuring no wastage of doses can prove to be a daunting task without an effective solution.
Here’s where IoT comes into the light for ensuring efficient vaccine transportation.
Role of IoT in Covid-19 Vaccine Distribution
IoT holds the efficiency to play the key role in several dimensions of life, such as the health system, which is one of the most crucial aspects amid this situation.
Research says that the primary trial data of covid-19 vaccines is over 94% effective in restoring good health to Covid-19 infected patients.
In the history of medicines, the first vaccine ever made for an epidemic situation took four years, but this Coronavirus vaccine took only eight months to come into existence considering the intensity of the situation.
The vaccines were prepared but one of the most crucial scenarios it faced was that there weren’t adequate sources to distribute the vaccines among 660 million of the world’s population where each person needs to undergo two dosages of the vaccine.
IoT has helped manufacturing centers in maintaining the production levels for the widespread distribution of vaccines.
IoT devices can help in gathering immense data related to manufacturing and help make the process all the more efficient.
The PWC survey showed that 81% of industrial manufacturing units have witnessed an increase in efficiency with the involvement of IoT.
IoT connectivity helps machines in communicating with each other for real-time changes and improved efficiency.
There was a huge rise in the demand graph for Covid-19 vaccines without enough supply to meet the demand.
The Covid scenario transformed the operation system of the supply chain and management world.
Forums like SAS analytics and ECS came forward to deliver a high-end smart analysis, implementation, and virtual management against the pandemic, globally.
Several forums came forward, facing this challenge like no other before.
Cold-Chain distribution started relying on IoT platforms to carefully distribute these temperature-sensitive vaccines and enhance the organizational operational shipping and management system effectively within a shorter period to meet the key goal.
This contagious disease was acting as cancer for the system.
It is during this that IoT became a turning point during this overwhelming situation.
Many organizations invested in high-tech warehouse management techniques with the help of renowned IoT platforms to monitor the supply chain and inventory methods digitally.
Smart equipment helped to keep the medications safe and keep track against any shock and moisture to the vaccine bottles and prevent any damage.
When working with cold-chain supply management, few requirements need to be administered.
IoT seems to be the right choice that acted as a ray of hope to the distribution channel in fighting back against Covid.
The smart sensors monitor shipments and ensure exact arrival time, temperature control for safe distribution, and tracking the number of supplies.
The IoT-based super sensors also help in tracking the location of the vaccine deliveries over a vast geography.
IoT sensors can work far more accurately and help avoid human mistakes to such critical lifesaving assets.
IoT sensors can detect the temperature range and send the acquired data to the allotted gateway, which then pass on the information to the cloud-based station for analysis.
This alerts the situation and precautionary measures can be taken accordingly before any mishap.
Talking about the cold chain, IoT is playing a major role.
Every vaccine has a different col chain viz.
ultracold chain i.e.
below Ᾱ4₠(ᾷ0₩, the refrigerated chain between 36₠to 46₠(2₠to 8₩ and frozen chain below ᾴ₠(ᾲ0₩.
Pfizer vaccine for example requires the Ultracold Chain, and the company has designed a box to manage the temperature in transit, using dry ice to maintain the Ᾱ4₠(ᾷ0₩ temperature for up to 10 days.
These boxes implement IoT technology to monitor location and temperature in real-time.
Cold Chain Vaccine Distribution
Various IoT platforms and devices are designed totrack vaccines, share information, and perform actions in real-time to identify and monitor the entire cold chain of vaccine distribution.
The mobile sensors are employed on the packages tomaintain vaccine temperatures and ensure the authenticity of the vaccine.
The temperature data thus collected en-route isprovided to the healthcare provider.
Besides, thesystem sends notifications with the location details to the vaccine stakeholder.
Vaccine Supply Chain Tracking
Various companies have developed blockchaintechnology solutions to help in tracking the state of the vaccines.
Blockchain plays a vital role in the cold chain distribution of vaccines as it tracksall the events that take place from manufacturing of raw materials to vaccine distribution and administration.
Security of Cold Chain IoT Devices against Hackers
We all know that there are people who in the name of the pandemic are continuously thinking of their financial gain, and cybercriminals are no exception to this.
These cybercriminals and miscreants use various methods for their interests.
Supply chain components need to be kept secure with the advanced measures taken by the solution providers.
Companies are making efforts and have developedblockchain and cold chain-based management solutions that help govern all aspects of manufacturing, distribution, and administration of vaccines safely and securely.
is a company that with its solar-powered vaccine carrier (integrated with an IoT device) is helping in COVID-19 vaccine distribution.
In conversation with Mayur Shetty, CEO of the company, we came to know more about how vaccines are being distributed, how the medical refrigeration system manufactured by their company is helping in vaccine distribution.
We also asked him about the role of IoT in vaccine distribution.
Here is the insightful information he shared with us:
From production till finally injecting; vaccines require uninterrupted refrigeration, vaccines need to be stored and transported with utmost care.
In the entire process of vaccine storage and distribution, IoT-based temperature and location tracking, exposure times, and significant analytics are helping to a great extent.
The application of IoT to the supply chain can ensure that the dose reaches every patient, and no wastage takes place.
article/understanding-impedance-matching-in-pcb-design-with-example-and-calculation
Understanding Impedance Matching in PCB Design with Example and Calculation
, and why it is important.
What is Impedance?
You can think of Impedance as resistance in AC.
Impedance is also measured in Ohms, just like Resistance, but it is very different from resistance.
Resistance Ohms works in DC characteristics, but the impedance is used in AC, specifically, that has a frequency.
To ensure that the signal trace is carefully designed and the quality of the signal does not degrade over the traces, impedance needs to be controlled carefully as the impedance of the traces of a PCB is generally uncontrolled.
Importance of Impedance Matching in PCB Design
refers to the matching of substrate material properties with trace dimensions and locations to ensure the impedance of a trace’s signal is within a certain percentage of a specific value.
Controlled impedance boards provide repeatable high-frequency performance.
At high-frequency, the signal traced on a PCB is not just a connection but acts like a component.
Even a single trace has different characteristics at different points.
Whenever the signal moves further in the traces, different impedance produces signal reflection that is dependent on the difference between two unmatched impedances.
The larger impedance mismatch produces larger reflection and affects the signal integrity.
The reflection of the signal superimposes the actual or primary signal that is often misunderstood by the high-frequency ADC, high-speed processing circuits, and fails to decode the actual signal.
Standard Impedance Values for PCB Design
Different signal traces require different impedance characteristics over the entire signal traces.
Depending on the types of signal and the speed of the data transfer or frequency, the list below will give a widely accepted controlled impedance for different PCB signal traces.
It is important to remember that the Impedance needs to be maintained all over the signal path.
USB
90
+/- 15%
HDMI
95
+/- 15%
IEEE 1394
108
+/- 2%
Displayport
100
+/- 20%
VGA
75
+/- 5%
DVI
95
+/- 15%
PCIe
85
+/- 15%
Ethernet Cat.5
100
+/- 5%
Thus, when routing signal traces, it is important to maintain the above impedances to maintain signal integrity.
However, other than this, specific impedance requirements are always mentioned in the datasheet of the respective component.
It is advisable to go through the datasheet to get information about high-frequency traces and what are the impedance requirements of the particular signal.
PCB Impedance Matching ᾠExample
due to its low cost and easy availability.
Many people use this module and design a PCB which may be good for hobby projects but when this PCB will be tested for signal level integrity, the output of the SIM800 will be very poor.
Not only this, in the most serious cases, the RF Antenna may provide poor results, as well as the SIM800fails to work in the network.
The major reason in almost all cases is bad PCB design, especially the RF signal Routing.
The RF antenna or RF signal is a very high-frequency signal that receives data in the GSM band.
This needs to be properly designed for reducing the reflection on the RF traces.
The Datasheet says that the target impedance of the RF Trace should be 50 Ohms as a controlled impedance.
PCB Impedance Measurement and Calculation
Most of the signals that are just single signal paths have single-ended impedance and signals that use differential pair impedance as well as single-ended impedance.
The impedance traces depends on the following things:
Width and Thickness of the Copper traces (In all layers)
The dielectric constant of the core and prepreg materials
Distance from other coppers
The thickness of the core or prepreg material.
Let's match the impedance of the same signal since differential pair routing is completed when the impedance is matched properly.
, Inc - PCB Toolkit V8.05 that is free software and very famous among designers.
It is useful to get the approximate value of the required impedance spacing, etc.
So, Impedance needs to be matched on the D+ and D- lines of the USB.
Since it is a USB signal, the requirement of the impedance is 90 Ohms.
Following are my parameters-
PCB - FR4 with a Dielectric constant of 4.6 Er
Base copper and plating thickness both are 35um
Conductor Height was chosen as 0.254mm
The differential pairs will be routed either in the top layer or in the bottom layer
Let's calculate the trace thickness and trace spacing-
Som with a 15% tolerance and 90 Ohms targeted impedance, the conductor width required 0.254mm, spacing between both is required 0.127mm.
So, if we route the differential pair in an FR-4 board with 35um copper and plating thickness the targeted impedance will be close to 90 Ohms.
It needs to be routed carefully that anywhere the spacing between the two conductors should not increase or decrease than 0.127mm and the Track width should not increase or decrease than the 0.254mm.
However, the perfect impedance value and matching after routing the trace can only be done by the manufacturer.
The manufacturer needs to be updated that the board requires impedance control, and the targeted impedance is 90 Ohms in differential pair and 60 Ohms on single-ended impedance.
The manufacturer of the PCB will make the PCB with the targeted impedance.
article/where-does-the-growth-of-global-5g-deployment-stands-amid-covid-19-pandemic
Where Does the Growth of Global 5G Deployment Stands amid COVID-19 Pandemic?
The pandemic has played a spoilsport, and the challenge has quickly shifted to extracting the ROI out of their investments in the current economic scenarios.
started rolling out across the globe, which started representing a landmark move in the history of ICT.
The timeline has offered us rich and detailed insights into the hunger for 5G and possible use cases.
But, we must understandexactly what is the current scenario of 5G in the pre and post-pandemic and the various impediments it witnessed in its path.
A lot of service providers have successfully deployed 5G networks globally and started providing its benefits to the users, but suddenly the entire sector had to deal with the unanticipated consternation and financial ambiguity sparked by the COVID-19 virus that has postponed coverage expansions, deployments, and rollouts in certain markets.
As of July 2020, there were 92 commercial networks in 38 countries and 150 million 5G subscribers in China.
Apart from that it has been forecasted that around 320 million 5G subscribers will be in the US by the end of 2025, and 8 million 5G subscribers in South Korea, as per a survey conducted by Ericsson Mobility.
Since the pandemic commenced creating mayhem across the world, time spending on display has escalated among consumers.
As per the survey by Ericsson, over 50 percent of people stated that they are spending their time on streaming devices, and around 45 percent of people are spending time on social media and messages.
As per international research firm IDC, although most Asia Pac countries started their 5G journey (NSA for the most) in 2019/2020 with relative ease, the pandemic has played a spoilsport and it has become difficult to extract the ROI.
So IDC believes that the transition to SA will take some more time in the developing AP economies like Korea, Australia, and HK willlead in SA deployments.
This is when the data growth is further expected to grow leaps and bounds with new 5G-ready devices hitting the markets, so initial use cases seem to be targeted to eMBB and massive IoT.
In an exclusive interaction with CircuitDigest, Yash Jethani - Research Manager - Telecom & IoT ᾠIDC, said “Of all the AP economies, India seems to stand as an exception ᾠthe spectrum is allocated in much of ASEAN, ANZ and North Asia (India the notable exception right now) and services are available in China, South Korea, Australia with more coming every day.
India has not totally aligned itself with 3GPP so the device ecosystem, PLI schemes, and other benefits for export-oriented growth will not be fully in sync, and India’s growth could be curtailed in IDC’s view.
So the other challenge is around standardization.ᾍ
On the possible solutions and way forward, satellite connectivity should be thought of as augmenting terrestrial B2C connectivity along with carrier aggregation, the active sharing of spectrum, and infrastructure decoupling, so operators and governments should be progressive on the regulations related to ‘inclusion for allᾠand ‘connectivity for all'.
This should be complemented with B2B use cases in 5G for enhancing supply chain inefficiencies across the RCEP group, ASEAN, and India; and the right investments in private 5G cellular (with numerous business models with 3rd party infra, tower companies, etc.) for business entities requiring higher security demands and/or tailor-made solutions.
“Lastly, close and continuous coordination of country regulators, ITU-APT, and other inter-government bodies tackling climate change, supply chain, and last-mile logistics with de-risking and diversification, aiding nimble infrastructure deployment methods and tackling data security and sovereignty issues.
So prioritization, commitment, and execution will be the key points to understand as to how 5G will solve tomorrow’s global problems,ᾠopined Jethani.
In the middle of 2020, we heard much buzz about the delay of 5G, and the release of 17 implementations thatwill be the inflection point of 5G.
Satyajit Sinha - Senior Analyst - IoT Analytics, told exclusively to Circuit Digest, “However, we can see a smooth transition of the high-end 4G module to the 5G module.
There is much activity not only from chipset players but also from Module players.
By the end of May 2021, 443 operators in 133 countries/territories were investing in 5G.ᾍ
159 of those operators in 66 countries/territories had launched 3GPP-compliant 5G mobile services
62 operators in 35 countries/territories had launched 3GPP-compliant 5G FWA or home broadband services
From India's perspective, 5G devices are already deployed much before the 5G network.
It is expected to launch by 2H 2022.
However, we can see much development:
Jio partnered with NXP to implement a 5G NR O-RAN small cell solution in India
Bharti Airtel partnered with Tata Group to implement 5G networks solutions for India
G is much more than about speed.
It will open the door for a plethora of IoT and AI applications.
Further, 5G will play an increasingly important role in high-bandwidth and low-latency applications such as autonomous cars, drones, high-definition intelligent surveillance cameras, and industrial IoT,ᾠadded Sinha.
Ookla, the internet performance tester in its report on December 2020, stated that overall 5G deployments escalated by 62.3 percent between Q3 2019 and Q3 2020 with 99 countries having the rollout.
It also revealed that there were 14,643 cities globally with 5G deployments at the end of Q3 2020, a 1,671 percent increase over Q3 2019.
The total number of deployments internationally was 17,046.
According to various telecom experts, by the end of Q3 2020, the majority of cities that received 5G deployments were in the US around 7,583, which is then followed by Germany, Austria, Netherland, and Switzerland.
Netherland witnessed the biggest percentage change in the number of 5G deployments between Q3 2019 and Q3 2020 with a 50,350 percent jump from two deployments in Q3 2019 to 1,071 in Q3 2020.
Research firm Grand View Research has something else to say.
According to them, the international 5G services market size was valued at USD 41.48 billion in 2020 and is speculated to augment at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 46.2 percent from 2021 to 2028.
Initially, in the US, deployment of 5G has utilized millimeter-wavefrequency bands in the 28GHz and 39GHz bands that proved to offer remarkable speed.
Then, after that, rapid deployment in the 600MHz band has included a considerable countrywide 5G footprint.
interview/over-the-next-decade-ev-industry-might-see-a-growth-rate-of-100-per-annum-nishchal-choudhary-founder-of-battre
Over the Next Decade, EV Industry might see a Growth Rate of 100% per annum ᾠNishchal Chaudhary, Founder of Batt:RE
about the several disruptions in the Indian Electric Vehicle sector during the pandemic and what are the appropriate solutions that could successfully solve these impediments.
Every industry goes through multiple challenges from the time it is born and matures.
I think right now, there are certain challenges which are more to do with the indigenization of certain parts.
Secondly, there is still a huge segment of people who are still not convinced about the Electric Vehicle as the right mode of transportation and commute.
So, I think it is a kind of policy that the Government is introducing from time to time and this FAME scheme is subsidizing the high-speed scooters and also the entry of certain large players in the segment.
Slowly, we will reach an inflection point from where Electric Mobility will just really take off.
My personal view is that over the next 9 years or a decade, we can actually see an accumulative growth rate of almost 100% per annum.
What are the things that are holding people back from buying an Electric Vehicle? The first one is that there is no service network, if it is there, it is quite an unorganized service network, which is there for petrol vehicles.
Right now, we don't have normal repair shops that can just open up EV if something goes wrong and repair it.To address that, we have introduced a RoadSide Assistance, which is being given to all our customers by default.
If the customer finds any problem, he/she has to dial a number (toll-free) and his vehicle will be picked up and taken to the nearest authorized service center.
So, we are actually trying to give that confidence to our customers that if at all anything goes wrong with the vehicle, you don't have to get stranded on the road.
We are now having more than 500 recharge stations across the country and people can actually through our App locate the nearest charging stations.
We have 500 charging stations right now, but as we go along, we have a very big plan on this and the idea is that at least in all the cities that we are present at,we will put up the charging station at every 2 to 3 km.
Not at all.
If you actually look at last year, almost one quarter got wiped out because of the pandemic, but the overall industry actually really picked up.
There was a V-shaped recovery in the industry and it really took off and this year,in the month of May, we saw a slight drop, but April was fantastic and June is also showing a huge amount of growth.
And I don't know about the 3rd wave, but I think if the situation continues like this.
This year is going to be very important for Electric Mobility in India as it is actually going to shape the future of theecosystem in the country.
This year is very critical from all pointsof view.
Batt:RE is more of a B2C company and not a B2B company.
We are focusing on building our distribution.
We are now present in 150+ dealership outlets and in 15 states.
Our company is expanding its distribution pretty far and by Diwali, we are targeting to cross 300 dealers in India and that is how we are going to be working on it.
We have identified certain pockets which are more of a feeder market, which is important for any company who really wants to create an impact in that particular area to be present.
Right now, it is not on top of our priority list.
What we are focusing on is to actually establish ourselves and create a PanIndia distribution.
That is the priority number one and maybe in the next fiscal, we will be looking at getting into the International markets, but till then, I think we are going to be focusing only on India.
For us, the biggest differentiator is Lithium Ferro Phosphate batteries.
We were the first company to introduce these batteries in Electric vehicles in India.
The life of these batteries is almost 2000 recharge cycles, which means, almost around 6 years if we recharge them every day.
Other than that, I think we have a very loaded product in terms of features.
All our vehicles, mostly the entry-level or mid-level, appear with front and rear disk brakes, USB chargers, reverse gear, remote keys.
These are the basic features which arethere in all our vehicles and even basic, introductory level or entry-level products also have all these features.
We have fast chargers (10 ampere fast chargers) on all the vehicles.
We are working on two new models.
One is a high-speed scooter, andthe other is a high-speed motorcycle.
We have conceptualized, prototyped these products in-house.
Batt:RE is working very closely with all the suppliers to make a robust product that meets all the expectations ofIndian markets.
We planto launch these two products before Diwali.
This will really help us in addressing a segment where we are not present right now.
Both the products are going to be priced very attractively to address the large mass commuter segment.
article/simple-design-techniques-that-could-reduce-your-pcb-design-cost
Simple Design Techniques that could Reduce your PCB Manufacturing Cost
that can be used to lower the PCB cost.
There is another positive outcome as the reduction of PCB size also leads to the reduction inthe size of the product, which is again fruitful for different kinds of applications.
In previous times, through-hole components were the widely available components that directly affected the size of the PCB.
Today, all components can be converted to SMD versions, even ICs, as different manufacturers provide different packages that are smaller in size that could be useful to directly reduce the PCB size.
See the below images to understandhow component sizes reduce the board dramatically.
In the above images, we can see the difference between a through-hole and SMD 0805 package size difference.
Now, it's really clear that the same value same wattage resistors can be used in a much smaller space.
You can even place two resistors, one in the top layer other in the bottom layer.
There is a much smaller size also available other than 0805, such as 0603, 0402, 0201, etc.
This is the same thing that is reflected in capacitors, diodes, inductors.
A simple electronics circuit uses maximum resistors and capacitor-type components that even reducing these two could reduce the board size by at least 30-40%.
The SMD resistors can even be reduced furthermore by applying proper design and component selection technique, see the below resistors.
8 and 0805 Resistor vs Resistor SIP package 8 pin.
It is just like a chess game where you need to make the right decisions and it is the right move to reduce the PCB size.
TheSMD components are alsorelatively cheaper than the through-hole one, both component cost-wise and in assembly-related cases.
Well, again, there is a reason for that as through-hole components require additional steps to cut the component leads and to solder the same in the board.
Reducing unnecessary Layers as well as bad Layer Specifications
, bad routing experiences, and so on.
A lot of money can be saved during the fabrication of the circuit board if layer counts are reduced from 6 layers to 4 layers, 4 layers to 2 layers, and so on.
One of the important things to keep in mind is the ways to reduce the board layer count whenever it is possible.
However, for complex boards that include ball packages or extensive routings, it is essential to have a higher layer count, which may be necessary for better signal quality and the circuit board’s overall performance.
In such cases, the increased cost is better to save additional rework money, thus it is important to take the right decision about how many layers one should use to make a circuit board design.
Another common mistake that designers make is providing bad layer specifications to the vendor, resulting in high PCB costs during production.
Does your design need 70um copper thickness in all layers? Is it possible to make the board in 17.50um on both the Topand Bottom layer as well as making 35um in the inner layers or vice versa? It will reduce a lot of costs during production.
Also, please specify the proper creepage distance for your PCB.
Reducing PCB Cost by changing PCB Materials
Material cost becomes a major factor when it comes to choosing the right material.
In most cases, you can get away with generic FR4 PCB, but there are some instances where FR4 PCBs will not hold.
Agood example will be “PCBs for LEDᾠI am referring to the type you will find in an LED bulb.
Costing can be reduced by selecting the right board materials.
In many cases and many different applications, the standard FR-4 Board is everything that will do the job where choosing a more expensive option will not make any difference and can be termed as a luxury.
The temperature grade can be standard 130-140 degrees, which can be useful in all cases until or unless there is a special requirement.
PCB cost increases for nonstandard PCB thickness.
1.6mm is the standard PCB thickness.
Increasing or decreasing the PCB thickness will attract more money to be spent during the production phase.
Also, try to use a green solder mask without making fancy colored PCBs such as Black, Red, and Blue, etc.
Those are expansive color options and incura lot ofcost on PCB making.
The Green Solder mask is widely used in the PCB manufacturing process and it is the cheapest option for PCBs.
This rule applies to the Legend Color as well.
The most common legend color is white.
Choosing another color such as Black will increase the cost of PCB production heavily.
This theory applies to mostmanufacturers, but some manufacturers charge the same price for all the different solder masksand silkscreen options.
can be used to reduce the cost of production.
Routing related compensation
incurs a large cost during the PCB manufacturing process.
Changing the design in a certain way that it could be routed in a way where the Buried or Blind Vias are not required.
Also, sometimes, making the routing easier, people place components in a certain order that during the assembly process they are forced to solder the component manually.
It is not a cost-effective option.
Believe me, in almost all cases, a good design practice could reduce the chance of using buried or blind Viasuntil it is a truly dense board that requires signal integrity where buried or blind Vias are required.
Adjust order volume and lead time
that can fulfill your order volume.
Always compare the prices of the required PCs with the required quantity in the future.
But, make sure that the board is well tested during the POC (Proof of Concept) phase and the design is finalized for production.
Making an order without testing the PCB is a waste of time, as well as a huge amount of moneyis involved.
Now, you need to know the lead time.
Order the PCBs when you are not in a hurry and have a perfect goal set with time-related compensation before starting a production project.
Different vendors have different lead time-related rules.
The PCB cost gets very high if you order the PCB with a very short lead time.
So, always adjust the lead time to have a minimum cost quotation on the PCBs.
For bulk production, saving a few bucks may not be anything for a single board, but it could make a huge impact in higher volume quantities.
interview/our-ai-based-business-intelligence-and-automation-solutions-improve-business-process-efficiency-shivansh-sethi-ceo-and-founder-of-aiotze
Our AI-based Business Intelligence and Automation Solutions Improve Business Process Efficiency: Shivansh Sethi, CEO and Founder of AIOTIZE
In recent times, Artificial Intelligence has gained momentum, and the need to develop more holistic platforms and solutions that automate business intelligence and analytics processes is the need of the hour.
Various companies are making use of machine algorithms to identify trends and insights of their vast data, thereby making faster decisions that potentially position them to be competitive in real-time.
AIOTIZE is a company that is working closely towards Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning to provide business intelligence for enterprises and governments.
The company applies a layer of analytics through their proprietary cloud-based AI Engine - Cognixa.
Curious to know about the company, its drone automation concept, propriety AI engine, and how their solutions drive down costs, increase accuracy, improve safety and reliability; we sat down with the CEO and founder of the company, Shivansh Sethi, and asked him a few questions.
The name of our company, AIOTIZE implies AI (Artificial Intelligence), and IoT (Internet of Things).
We are applying IoT, AI, and deep technologies in making the consumersᾠlife simpler.
We are currently dealing with B2B solutions.
There are three domains in which we operate right now, which are robotics, IoT, and data science.
Data science includes AI, machine learning, neurons, and transfer learning concepts.
In IoT, we do sensor integration, we deploy different sensors onto the production areas of our clients, or it can be any manufacturing unit, logistics, products, vehicles, or whatever you need to track.
All those sensors integration with our platform comes as a package under IoT.
The adoption rate of AI is very low in India and due to the conventional mindset of our clients whom we deal with, we put across a lot of automation onto our client, and they are very much happy with it, but we're still exploring what else can we do as a value add for our clients because that's what matters.
The main task is execution and maintenance.
Our drone automation system scans the gas pipeline leakages and bends that could be very much dangerous.
We have made an indigenous drone system.
The AI system is also developed by our team.
The amalgamation of these technologies gives out a very good value to the client's production area.
This makes it safer, reliable, and affordable.
Moreover, the accuracy ranges from 80 to 85%.
It's a self-evolutionary model.
It learns from its past cases, whatever it has dealt with and those experiences are then transferredon to taking some autonomous decisions.
In case of public events, public gatherings, or the mass protests like Kisan Andolan in Delhi; these solutions could be very beneficial for law enforcement agencies as well as private stakeholders who are organizing the event because it can also track the body language.
It checks the body language of a particular subject and reports back to the control station.
We can calculate density, speed and we can generate heat maps according to it.
The second aspect is security and safety, and the third is monitoring and surveillance.
Single technology can serve up to multiple purposes of a client.
In the case of a railway track line, if there are rail bends that disintegrate due to churning and regress movement of trains on it; we need to make sure that these are intact because our clients hold private rail lines.
We are making a system for them where these cracks could be monitored, and surveillance could be done to minimize the workforce involvement because every two or three hours, people who have been assigned the task have to patrol these areas and check for the cracks or dents or any abnormalities in the structure which is a very tedious task.
If a rail line is 80 kilometers long and you have a flying camera that can give you the video of 40-45 km ahead route, that’s a big novelty.
These are infrastructures that can be scanned and surveyed for checking damages if any.
Besides, these solutions can be used in the case of pandemics, natural calamities like earthquakes, hurricanes, and floods.
The damage percentage is calculated on its own and the same is communicated to the nearby relief teams that can reach the site and focus on that particular site rather than going here and there haphazardly.
The teams usually comprise of half of our employees and half of our client’s employees, because sometimes decisions have to be made on the spot.
Using our drone, we can calculate the body temperature of any subject.
For example, if a person comes with a temperature higher than 37 degrees Celsius, the nearby health authorities or security guards would be intimidated.
As far as the payload is concerned, we develop our drones, we have our frame, and the whole system is designed in such a way that it is not dependent on any third party.
In the beta version, we come to know how many containers it has scanned and all the other business insights can be put there according to the client's requirement.
We calculate the container health for our client because that might help in insurance claims.
There are infrared analytics too for night operations.
We have sensors or cameras that make the drones autonomous.
That is called the robotic operating system (ROS).
It's a set of libraries and code which are used to develop the system and is independent of any GPS coordinates or any other external dependency.
Another example could be to capture the vehicle’s license plate.
For this, model one can be selected.
The management settings include public IP port and this information is usually given by the IT department and the video starts streaming.
We also have a library for people to refer back in case of any dispute regarding any particular services.
Besides this, our drones can be used in yard supervision that we do for our clients.
The assets which our client holds are very valuable.If a small misalignment happens, this claim would fall off and the company will have to bear huge losses.
We provide real-time analytics to our clients.
We have two products ᾠIOX and Cognixa that can work as standalone systems as well.
We can customize them according to the client's requirement and we tailor-make solutions.
IOX is a drone automation platform, which can be used for automated flight or for collecting data, serving anything, and if analytics have to be applied on it in real-time, then we combine their analytics.
There are a lot of business insights, which are required for growth hacking or taking a business to the next level.
If we know what is the purchase history or purchasing behavior of the particular person who is standing there, the offerings could be customized, the prices could be customized, you can target your clients who are loyal in a better way.
Whenever a person reaches near the storefront, he or she will receive a message on the phone telling him/her about the offer that is going on in this particular store/restaurant.
For that, we collect the customer data.
That's how data analytics happen, and valuable insights are provided to the client.
My personal favorite is AWS; the people are very much helpful.
If any newcomer wants to dive into the ecosystem, he/she can talk to AWS, NVIDIA, IBM, Oracle.
They provide you a lot of resources free of cost if you are genuine enough to prove your concept.
We received almost a hundred thousand dollars from Amazon to test our platform and build it.
There is a lack of appetite in India for solutions like these, because we are not adapted to machinery working, and we are not comfortable with that as much as Eastern countries are.
People in Eastern countries have grown themselves up to an extent where the government is also aiding them in establishing their businesses.
We also get the support, but comparatively, we have to adhere to the rules, we have to go through many licensing processes; this adds to the burden.
We have to tell the authorities about our route, where will the package being dropped, which drone we are using.
There are a lot of important compliances, but nothing or very little is being done to enforce that successfully, and that is the pain pointfor us.
There is an exponential rise in the requirements of the clients.
Our purpose is to provide our clients with automation, as well as business intelligence.
These two value additions are given by us and we use different technologies for that.
The prospects of technology are huge.
There's a lot of quantum computing going on right now.
IBM, for example, has developed storage space on a single atom.
Amazon has patented a technology where they can store their goods underwater and underwater warehouses have been started as a concept, they've got a patent for it and they might start it anytime soon.
There can be some shortcomings due to pandemics in India, and there is a lot of friction in the conventional mindset of our clients and to change that is a major concern.
We work on the B2B model.
Right now, we are only dealing with the logistics industry, but we are planning to expand.
We are developing a universal system where we just tweak the system according to the requirements and deploy it as a separate instance for the client.
We want to build a kind of ecosystem where the client’s involvement and investment of time are as minimum as possible because everything could be monitored sitting anywhere in the globe.
We plan to implement 5G on our drones.
Also, we plan to do something with SATCOM.
Probably, that can be implemented and we are testing out some new models as well.
interview/rishabh-agarwal-ceo-of-peer-robotics-on-how-their-company-builds-robots-capable-of-learning-from-humans-in-real-time
Rishabh Agarwal, CEO of Peer Robotics on how their Company Builds Robots Capable of Learning from Humans in Real-Time
Statistics say that the robotics industry is growing at a faster pace than ever!From self-driving car factories to distribution warehouses, the deployment of robotic applications is expected to increase across multiple industries in the foreseeable future.
Robots help in envisioning a near future where humans and machines seamlessly interact to achieve solutions to real-world problems.
Today, manufacturing and warehousing lines are using robots to increase productivity, but automation is expensive and is only accessible to large enterprises.
With the idea of building collaborative mobile robots that are capable of learning from humans in real-time, Rishabh along with his co-founders - Alok and Tanya started the company named ‘Peer Roboticsᾮ
Peer Robotics is a collaborative mobile robotics company that builds robots that could work alongside humans to enhance their productivity and efficiency.
They have built the first-ever collaborative mobile robot that understands humans through haptic feedback.
To know more about the robots built by the company, the technology involved, and their future plans, we had a word with Mr.
Rishabh Agarwal, who is the CEO of the company.
At Peer Robotics, we truly believe that the future lies in collaboration between humans and robots, and not fixed automation.
With that ideology in mind, we build mobile robots that can learn from humans in real-time allowing people on the factory floor like material handlers, operators, package mowers to simply deploy these robots by moving them like a shopping cart.
In this process, they can program it and the robot can do that task again and again.
Think of it as a Roomba, but for the material handling solutions, and manufacturing and warehousing lines.
I am from a manufacturing background, my dad had a small manufacturing line and while growing up, I had a chance to see how things change drastically over the years, especially for small and medium scale enterprises.
I did my Bachelor's in Mechanical Engineering and Masters's in Systems and my co-founders - Tanyaand Alok are also experienced in the field of robotics.
Over a few years, we saw many industries trying to automate or looking to get the value out of automation.
But some are still stuck at just POC levels, or initial stages.
One of the factors that we identified is the complication around automation.
So the user still sees the robot as a separate entity that comes into their facility, and now they have to worry about that.
It's not a part of their ecosystem or their processes.
That's how we started working on Peer Robotics from the idea of making these robots as simple as laptops.
So, no one has to worry about who is going to set my laptop or what happens if I'm downloading the new codes or writing excels or whatever.
With that idea, we started building the robots, the core idea was always that how humans on the factory floor/warehouses can work with these robots without software engineers, or experience in training to deploy and work with the platforms.
Currently, our focus is towards material movement or in general, mobility in warehouses and discrete manufacturing to be exact.
Consider automobile manufacturing units, OEMs, aerospace manufacturing, EMS, contract manufacturing for electrical or even mechanical systems.
In the operations are the tasks we are doing are very much similar to the lean manufacturing ideology.
Water spider, dawn bond replenishment, or even one-piece flow or continuous flow are the operation and manufacturing lines are trying to do.
In all these areas, Peer Robotics is building solutions to support their flow of goods, and ensuring that the people on the factory floor can focus on a productive task, which is the assembly or the machining of that particular tool rather than the unwanted movement of parts from one place to another.
That’s our secret source from the perspective that our robots can understand human feedback.
Let's say, there's a platform that acts just like a shopping cart, to begin with.
So you can apply a force on the robot and the robot recognizes that force feedback and can learn from it and actuate it.
If someone asks to deploy the robot, all they have to do is simply take the robot physically by just grabbing it and moving it around on the factory floor and in this process; the robot learns all the end locations or even the path that the operator wants the robot to follow.
So, next time onwards, it can do it autonomously.
So literally, within minutes, we can teach the platform and deploy it.
This is one of the core ideologies because we believe in not just working next to humans, but working with them like existing as a peer to the already working man force/labor force working in the factory line.
Our robots are built from the perspective of just like a driverless car.
We have LIDAR cameras around the systems that allow the platform to recognize how things are changing, howpeople are moving around the platform, and ensuring that will give you are taking the right decision around them.
But along with that, our secret sauce helps us to understand humans.
If let's say, we are in the way or a human is in the way of the robot, they can apply the force or simply grab the robot and the robot actuates.
At the moment of interaction, the robot simply acts as a peer, so they can move the robot from one place to another or just take it out from the location in just a second.
And once we are done, the robot will start doing its task again.
The ecosystem matters a lot and in India, given that there are still very few robotics companies working or operating, there is a technical shortage as well.
Sometimes, it’s hard for us to build up a strong team, whether it's not just about the core leadership, but at the same time ensuring that everyone in the team has scale towards the task of developing the platform, deploying the platform.
But along with that, it's also about the education that we have to provide to either our users or our partners about how our platform is going to change the way operations were done so far.
We are in this phase of transition from predictable to dynamic operations.
For operators or the factory floors, or for the warehousing to understand that this transition will require automation that is as adaptable as humans.
It's a very key task for us and that's the challenge we face right now.
More from the perspective of adoption and building a strong team that has the skill set, or experience in this area for quite some time.
That part is still I would say a little bit better in that sense because we do have a global supply chain.
As I mentioned, me and the otherco-founders of the companyare from IIT Delhi.
And as part of that process, we were able to build robots when we were in IIT Delhi, and that experience itself helped us to connect to the wider global ecosystem in understanding where the parts are, how we can procure them who can do the manufacturing, whether it's in India, whether it's even in Germany or Japan.
It allows us to create an ecosystem or I would say a supply chain, which is global, but that being said, we can acquire most of the components from the local Indian market itself.
There is a demand, and there is a need because there is a potential of driving the throughput.
And for that throughput, everyone is trying to strive for, and early adopters are always automobile manufacturers that we have seen.
We are also working with some of the largest automobile manufacturers in India.
But along with that, some of the warehousing industries have great potential on adopting these platforms.
So far we have deployments going on in India.
We are building these platforms, from a perspective that we are not just serving large enterprises but also small and medium scale enterprises.
With that ideology in mind, our focus is to build the out-of-box solution, which we can ship to our end users.
They can deploy it without any assistance within minutes.
Even the market that we are focusing on is global, not just the Indian market.
We have started working along with some of the American companies right now transitioning slowly on the American SME market and Germany, Japan are the potential markets where we'll also be expanding along with India.
One thing that I learned from our professors during the time I was in IIT Delhi, or other universities, is that we should first identify what we like doing.
Robotics is also a very wide area like we have mechanical engineers, we have electrical engineering, software engineers, but identifying the area where you want to gain your expertise in and focusing on it for years and years because nothing good is going to come from like one month or two months kind of training.
The focus should be on how we are focusing on something that we like doing.
So, one piece of advice would be, transferring from my professors, is that rather than sawtooth progress of working on something, and then going down and starting something new, we should focus on developing system and giving it time throughout making sure that what we are doing is something we love.
Once we have identified that, we should give in all of our time and effort towards making it one of the best skills.
Our software team, our firmware team is looking forhighly skilled people to come and work along with us over the past four or five months.
We have hired four or more engineers along with us.
One of the key areas that we focus on is how dedicated they are towards the particular skillset and which level they have worked on over this period.
To add up to this interview, Rishabhpointed outthe vast misconception that people have aboutrobots potentially replacing humans.
He further expressed that robotics is a way to empowerhuman ability by leveragingtechnology and a lot of robotics companies including Peer robotics are working towards that.
The purpose of their robots is to increase throughputand overall productivity of production lines in warehouses and other industries withouthindering human responsibilities and workflow.
article/importance-of-virtual-ground-and-virtual-short-in-op-amp-circuit-designs
Importance of Virtual Ground and Virtual Short in Op-Amp Circuit Designs
Today, we will be looking into another interesting concept associated with Op-Amps, calledVirtual Ground and Virtual Short.
So, let’s dive into it.
What is Virtual Ground and Virtual Short?
Before getting into the details, let us take a look at thefigures given below.In Figure (a),the voltage at VA = VB, this is because there is a short circuit between VA and VB point.
In figure (b), there is no connection (short circuit) between VA and VB.
Butstill the voltage at VB = VA without connection with any other source means there should be a virtual connection in between VA and VB or due to some other virtual effect the VB is equal to VA.
This is an effect commonly knows as “Virtual Short Circuitᾮ
Likewise,in Figure (c), even if the VA is connected with a 5V source but due to some effects if the VA= VB = 0V (Gnd_Potential) means this effect will be called as “Virtual Groundᾮ
The above mentioned details may seem like magic or unrealistic.
But, the basic Op-Amp operations follow the above two concepts, and understanding the reason behind this will help to understand full Op-Amp physics.
The Basic Op-Amp working mechanism mainly follows below given 2 important rules
Always the Voltage at Non-Inverting Input and Inverting input of the Op-Amp should be Equal.
The internal Op-Amp design and output feedback resistors always tend to make them equal in order to maintain the stable Operation Op-Amp.
As per the Op-Amp characteristics, the Op-Amp has higher input impedance and lower output impedance.
So, for ideal Op-Amp operation, the current flow through Op-Amp input terminals are assumed as “Zeroᾮ
Virtual Short in Op-Amp
topology which has 1V input and having the gain resistance of R1 = R2 = 1K.
It has some defined equations in order to find the relation between Input and Output Voltage relation.
Instead of using those defined formulas, we can apply the Basic Op-Amp rules in order to find the output voltage.
As per Rule - 1, the Inverting Input (-) voltage should be equal to the Non-Inverting (+) input voltage, for the given circuit, the V_Non_Inverting = 1V.
Like Non-Inverting (+) pin the Inverting pin (-) not connected to any dedicated voltage source and only the Op-Amp VOUT can make the Inverting (-) terminal voltage to 1V.
So, once the Op-amp gets “Powered Onᾠthe internal parameters of Op-Amp are worked to bring Inverting Input voltage equal to 1V and as per rule to there is no current flow through the Inverting pin.
Due to that R1 & R2 becomes voltage divider with VOUT as a Source voltage and Voltage divider output should be equal to Non-Inverting Input Voltage.
The output voltage is varied to either higher or lower voltage levels from its previous state in order to bring the V(+) = V(-).
Here, due to R1=R2 and both make voltage divider combination and the VOUT = 2V makes (V+) = V(-).
Based on the below Non-Inverting Op-Amp gain equation:
So, for Non-Inverting Op-Amps the Inverting Pin Voltage is equal to Non–Inverting voltage without direct short circuit between both the terminal and the Equaling Voltage at both the terminals happens by Virtual Concept and this effect is called as “Virtual Short in Op-Ampᾮ
Virtual Ground Concept in Op Amp
By applying Rule 1 and 2 in the below Inverting Op-Amp configuration, the Voltage at Inverting Pin should be Zero.
But, the Inverting pin (-) is connected to a 5V source via R1.
As per Rule 2, there is no current flows through Inverting (-) Input and all currents are flows through R1 and R2.
In order to make the V(-) = 0, the VOUT has to supply compensating voltage.
In the given circuit, the Positive 5V is supplied to Inverting terminal via a 1K resistor, and to make the Inverting terminal voltage = 0 the VOUT should be -5V (due to R2 = 1K).
If the R2 Value is modified, then the VOUT also should be modified by the Op-Amp internal structure to make V(In-) = 0.
For Inverting Op-Amp Configuration => V1/R1 = -VOUT/R2
Importance of Virtual Ground and Virtual Short in Op-Amp
The Virtual Ground and Virtual Short are the two important parameters that are used to examine any Op-Amp circuit.
Most of the Op-Amp circuit derivations and transfer functions formulated based on these two concepts and make the circuit analysis simpler without considering the input parameters of the Op-Amp.
The Virtual Ground and Virtual Short Concept are only applicable for “Closed LoopᾠOp-Amp circuits.
In Open Loop or the Op-Amp used as comparators, there is no feedback mechanism to control the matching between Inverting and Non-Inverting Input Voltage.
So, the Op-Amp always operates in Saturation mode and Virtual Ground, Virtual Short Concepts doesn’t work.
In these types of Conditions, the designer should look into the “Differential InputᾠVoltage limits in order to avoid the Op-Amp malfunctions.
In some of the Closed-loop conditions also the Virtual Ground and Virtual Short concepts will get void when the output matching limit exceeds the Op-Amp Vcc and Vee supply ranges.
Examples of Virtual Ground and Virtual Short Void Conditions
Here, the Vee = Gnd and Negative voltage can’t be delivered by the Op-Amp output due to the unavailability of Negative rail.
So, the Virtual Ground Condition is Void.
To bring the Virtual Short, the VOUT should be equal to 50V and the Vcc = 12V and the Op-Amp saturated to 12V level and Virtual Short condition is Void.
In this circuit, in order to make V(+) = V(-), the Feedback Element is not available, and it is operated as Open Loop Comparator.
So, the Virtual Short Concept is Void.
How can Efficient Placing of Thermal Vias Improve Heat Management in PCB Designs?
to create an adequate heatsink on the copper layers.
Now, this is maybe an effective solution but not as effective as the Aluminium heatsink that is used separately as a component in the PCB.
There are two choices left with the designer:
Use as much copper as available inside the board.
Use a separate Heatsink to compensate for the additional heat dissipation.
.
Placement of Thermal Vias
The placements and size of thermal Vias differ largely and it is dependent on the type of components, different rules, and expertise.
But one major rule is to use thermalVias as close as possible to the heating source directly below the heated components.
However, where heat dissipation is not satisfactory, irrespective of component pad placements, thermal Vias can also be placed on the periphery of the component.
In this case, the rule also remains the same, that is placing the Vias as close as possible to the periphery of the component.
Thermal Conductivity of Different Material
is a key element that is used to determine how much heat can be absorbed by the material.
The table below gives you an idea of the thermal conductivity of different materials.
With the help of this table, we can make a rule on how we need to manage the Vias.
See the table below:
Copper
388
Lead Frame
277
Aluminium
205
Silicon
145
SnAgCu Solder
57.3
63Sn37Pb Material
50
DA Epoxy (Die Attach Epoxy)
2.4
Mold Compound
0.7
FR4 PCB
0.35
Thus, from the above table, it is known that aluminum has a poor thermal conductivity than copper.
But, since the Aluminum heatsink gets much more area and it creates a much more effective cooling effect on the heated devices.
But, as we can see, if copper is used effectively, it could dissipate much more heat than the same area of aluminum.
An effective thermal via placement is when the Vias are used properly in the IC or the heated components pad that uses conduction, as a heat transfer method, and the heat is distributed among multiple layers of copper and then by the free air, the heat dissipation starts to get transferred on the air using the convection method.
It is recommended that the thermal Vias inner diameter need to be smaller, for example - approximately 0.35 mm.
If the hole diameter is larger, soldering problems may happen where solder suction will not be proper during the reflow soldering process, so due caution is necessary.
However, if a higher diameter is required, thermal padding could be useful to compensate for this.
Key Points to Remember while Placing Thermal Vias
Few things are important to note down during thermal via designing.
Exposed pads are designed in such a way that the heat will directly transfer the heat from the case to the copper region.
The effect of solder as the heatsink is not significant as it is thin, and the conduction property of solder is poor.
The above image shows thermal Vias on the exposed pad of U1.
For exposed pad packages, the maximum heat dissipation happens through the Vias to the bottom layer of the PCB, and then it is dissipated to the air.
Thus, having a large area of the bottom layer will also decrease the heat dissipation across the component package.
Separating heated components and distributing heatusing thermal Vias are helpful to evenly distribute the heat on other packages.
Thermal Vias are the only source to dissipate the heat on DFN, QFN packages as the top copper do not have maximum space due to pin allocations.
Thus, to use the bottom layer copper, the only way to increase the heat conductivity is to use the Thermal Vias.
The U5 and IC2 using Thermal vias.
IC2 using a QFN flat package where thermal Vias are the only possibility as this does not include a larger copper area on the soldering layer due to the distribution of the component pads.
The effective copper area for a thermal via connected device will be the maximum copper length that is directly connected with the component packages using the Thermal via (irrespective of the soldered layer).
The thickness of the copper plane is also responsible for the thermal conductivity.
2Oz copper provides better heat resistance than the 1.0 Oz or 0.5Oz copper.
So, this is the standard practice to use Thermal Vias.
Hope this article will help many during the design process and placement of the devices that require careful thermal considerations.
Please share feedback by using the forum and let us know how efficiently thermal resistance can be improved using different techniques of the Thermal via placements.
interview/prabhjot-kaur-founder-of-cbeev-and-esmito-talks-about-smart-charging-solutions-that-can-help-lower-the-cost-of-ev-manufacturing-in-india
Prabhjot Kaur, Founder of CBEEV & Esmito Talks about Smart Charging Solutions that can help Lower the Cost of EV Manufacturing in India
is its high cost and the lack of necessary infrastructure.
Compared to the ICEs, the EVs are approximately 4 times more expensive which is one of the reasons why EVs are less preferred by average Indian consumers.
Besides, development cost and poor raw material supply chain;the high upfront costs of EVs can be directly attributed to high battery costs.
To be precise, the cost of a battery inside an Electric Vehicle accounts for 400% of the total manufacturing cost of an EV.
Seeing the prospects of EVs in India and to help lower down the battery cost, Dr.
Prabhjot Kaurjoined CBEEV which is an R&D organization focusing on designing and developing the products which are required forEVs.Along with this, she started another company named Esmito.
The company is working towards offering e-Mobility solutions like BMS, batteries, chargers with charging and swapping management, battery performance analytics, EV operations management, etc.
thereby contributing towards lowering down the battery cost.
To know about why batteries are posing hurdles in the way of electric vehicles to run on roads here in the country and the possible solutions, we talked to Dr.PrabhjotKaurwho is the founder ofCBEEV&Esmito.
Read the entire conversation here.
that would take a lead in solving this issue, and coming up with solutions that we can provide to our market.
and saw that in these batteries; it is largely theBMS that plays a vital role, which becomes the brain and soul of a battery; the rest of the components like the cells are not getting produced in the country as of today.
Also, it may take almost another couple of years before we have commercial productions happening in the country.
For the other components like motors, it's not that we didn't have it, but we did not work even though we knew that the electric vehicles were coming.
Probably, we should have started almost about one and a half decades back.
But we didn't.
That is not something that we cannot do.
So, that's where we started.
We started to develop all of these systems.
The intent was less on the innovations, but more on the products.
This was not the fundamental R&D that we were trying to do.
This was more to target the commercialization of the products helping India in the adoption of these systems.
To ensure that these systems could be aligned together, and come up with an electric vehicle or these components, and as soon as possible the manufacturing could start in the country.
That's what we started to do as in whatever components we were coming up with, we started to license it to the industries and did some technology transfers and were looking forward that it gets adopted as soon as possible.
is a vertical integrated company for providing energy as a service solution.
These solutions move around the battery swapping, providing the SaaS solutions, swap stations, batteries, BMS, etc.
So, we do the intelligence in the battery and the swap stations and bring them all together into a unified platform which is a kind of offered to the clients as a SaaS solution.
in the two-wheeler segment.
So, I think that is where India's focus has to be, if we want to talk about moving towards electrification of devices, that is on the two-wheelers and three-wheelers, which is the biggest chunk of the whole mix in the vehicles.
So, I think that is one part of it, where we need to focus on the subsystems that have to come from India, where it was not so far available.
Certainly, the mindsets of people play a very important role, where the awareness in our country was not there initially.
I think that now; youngsters especially have started to talk about electric vehicles, because of many reasons and also because the variants have started to come up and people are launching or talking about electric vehicles, which is a very good sign.
This is one of the changes that has happened over the last couple of years.
We have a few variants, new launches being announced every now and then.
That is a positive change.
If we talk about the challenge, then the biggest challenge that we have right now in the country is components availability which still is a bigger threat.
, second is the focus on the right vehicle mix where we need to target and the kind of affordability that we have in the country.
The major focus cannot be on the production of the luxurious car or luxurious segment, it is largely the affordability-driven market that we need to focus on, and third, certainly on the awareness part of it.
I would split this problem into two parts, one that we did not have the right solution some time back.
Whatever was required was not developed in the country.
We did not have the battery management system, chargers, vehicle control units i.e.
electronic control units for the vehicles without which we could not have our electric vehicle.
Also, the motors and the motor drivers, the power train becomes very important.
The whole of the combination and even the individual parts did not exist.
This is one part of it that was not developed, designed, or developed in the country.
The second part is commercialization, which is again a challenge because if you're getting something from China, for let's say at 1000 bucks, but in India because of the lack of the volumes, the production cost becomes higher.
As a manufacturer, if I'm getting something from China or elsewhere at 1000 Rupees, I would prefer to buy that versus what I'm getting for 2000 Rupees in India because that increases my cost.
That is one of the problems, but then I would say that it’s a kind of chicken and egg problem.
If we don't get volumes, we don't get lower rates or if we don't get it at lower rates; we do not get volumes for the production houses.
, it is a commercial organization very much like any other private limited company, which provides the solutions on a commercial basis.
So, that is the difference.
, it becomes kind of mandatory that we are buying the whole fuel of its life during its purchase because these are batteries.
They go and fit into the vehicle.
We thought why not segregate this by treating batteries like fuel and to be filled on demand.
comes down to about 30% - 40%.
If we take out the batteries, electric vehicles become very affordable for consumers.
Whenever we require fuel, we can go to the fuel station; in this case, it's a battery service provider or a battery swap station, where whenever we see that fuel is going down, we go to a service provider and say that you take my discharge battery, give me a charged battery, so that I can run my vehicle for another 100 kilometers or so or whatever is the range defined.
That was the intention with which we started battery swapping.
, and see that how do we optimize the performance of the battery.
This means that how do I get maximum life of the battery because as an operator, I have invested all the money into taking this asset.
So, the whole of this solution was very new.
There were a lot of innovations, many new concepts that were thought through and put and packaged into these batteries into the vehicles and charges.
This needed verification.
We needed data to verify our concepts and validate that this is now ready for launch.
If we talk about vehicles, every vehicle would have a Vehicle Identification Number (VIN) or chassis number so that you can track all the vehicles or identify every individual vehicle.
Now, when we are treating battery as an independent asset, which is owned by an operator, we would want that I can identify every battery uniquely, wherever we are going.
I know that there are lakhs of batteries, but each battery when it is coming to me for any purpose such as for exchange, maintenance, return, replacement, or whatever reason; I should be able to identify who is the manufacturer, when was it manufactured, what is the life of this battery, what is the type of the battery, what is the chemistry that has been used inside the battery; all of this information needs to be packed in an identifier.
That's where we came up with this term, Battery Identification Number (BIN) where all this information was actually found.
This became very easily trackable and traceable.
Swap protocol helped us tie all different pieces together and bring all manufacturers of the subsystems on the common platform.
In the entire ecosystem, the actors that we have are the battery, swap station, user, and vehicle.
We all, the manufacturers or the service providers, are making these subsystems independently.
We do not worry that this system needs to be talking to the other subsystems.
In a vehicle, if there is a motor, battery, or anything else, if they're not talking to each other; we cannot optimize, we cannot track anything.
; it will give you details about what is its life, charge, safety.
This is my own proprietary stuff that will work in your vehicle.
But when it goes to a vehicle of your friend, because his vehicle would have its own communications, it won't be able to talk to that.
So, the very first step was to make it open for people, for OEMs to adopt that and worked on a standard that in India, whosoever is producing all these components; they come on that single unified platform where they can adopt it and make systems interoperable.
If I'm the service provider for the battery, I can take the battery from suppliers A, B, C, D; it doesn't matter to me, it will talk to all the vehicles.
So, if I follow that protocol, it will ensure that! We were saying that the batteries should be treated as fuel.
Now, this fuel has to be a common fuel irrespective of the vehicle, like we go to the petrol station of any petrol supplier.
We don’t worry that the fuel might not work in my vehicle.
That was the purpose for which we created this protocol, i.e.
to bring standardization and interoperability.
or were working on any sub-systems.
We tried to collect them throughout the country created a forum and data a few iterations on what are the difficulties, what are the issues to be resolved, and thereby did iterations on this protocol almost about three to four times after getting the inputs from all the industry partners and formulated it and got it signed from them.
That is where we started that work, so that was the very first step.
, and the higher side of the vehicles).
Once those standards are in place, I think largely a lot of these things would get resolved.
And that's where our experience actually is into formulating these standards also is quite fruitful and making the standardization for the country.
, they were researched upon for their final success about two-and-a-half decades back.
So, it's 20-25 years old technology that took time to mature, commercialize and become stable.
So, whatever we are talking about or seeing the lab's successful trials at this point, we are not going to see that commercial success very soon in a couple of years or five years.
It might take maybe about 8 - 10 years to see another form of chemistry that comes up which would be able to replace the batteries affordably.
is also getting difficult, and we are thinking of finding solutions to segregate them.
For sure, we are not able to adopt these batteries for the kind of segments or the affordability that we have for the country.
That's where battery swapping becomes a very important step.
, if we are giving them 2-kilowatt hour capacity of the battery; tomorrow, we should be able to provide them 3-kilowatt hour or 4-kilowatt hours of the energy packed into the same form factor in the same weight, that will bring a lot of advantage.
If right now we are offering them to take a battery and run maybe about 60 kilometers in one go in a scooter or two-wheeler.
So, tomorrow, they will be able to run maybe about 150 - 200 kilometers, so that technological advancement would be translated into the benefit of the user in that manner.
have been announced for cell manufacturing with outside technology.
The reason that we didn't have cell manufacturing is that we didn't have the chemistry that could emerge out of the fundamental research here in the country.
From the R&D point of view or commercialization point of view, we define R&D into two different parts.
One is the fundamental R&D and the others the applied one.
Fundamental R&D is where on the chemistry side of it, we have been missing for the finalization or fine-tuning of the product.
And I think that has started to happen.
There are four or five good organizations that are working on it.
Then on the applied side, which is largely the engineering side that is where we have the solutions now.
Several battery manufacturers have started to manufacture batteries in the country.
Of course, most of the components going into the cells are imported from other countries.
We import the cells and do the engineering around them, electronics, mechanical arrangement, thermal arrangement, and electrical arrangement.
Some companies are into setting up their battery manufacturing plants, and they're doing it successfully.
as well for the OEMs or the partners.
This is a kind of integrated solution specialized towards electric vehicles, where you can monitor the motors, controllers, or anything else in the vehicle along with the batteries, and put it on to the cloud to get the history.
Also, we can perform a lot of analytics, we can figure out the health of the batteries, issues with the battery, or the motors.
We can all get the data as performance characteristics of a vehicle, from there and we can control the vehicle also accordingly.
She ended up the conversation with a message for the youngsters, and people who have been associated with electric vehicles or in the automobile sector that it is the very right time that we jump into this segment and try to see that how collectively we can work together to bring out the solution for our market and our society.
This is a very huge market and we are not a competition to each other but at this point in time, we have to work in collaboration; we have to join hands together, see how quickly and how innovative solutions we can formulate to solve the problems of our own society because if we do not solve it, no one else is going to come here to solve the techno-commercial challenges for our country.
We need to work together and bring out good solutions, formulate our standards and not worry about success or failures; we have to keep on trying, and success is bound to happen.
And it's a very, very good market-challenging, an interesting and huge potential market where we can all contribute together.
interview/chandrashekhar-bhide-co-founder-of-lithion-power-talks-about-how-their-company-is-providing-power-to-ev-at-lithion-swapping-points
Chandrashekhar Bhide, Co-founder of Lithion Power talks about how their Company is Providing Power to Electric Vehicles at Lithion Swapping Points (LSP)
2-wheelers, 3-wheelers, andcommercial carswill be leading electric vehicle penetration in India by 2030.
Driving the EV adoption in the country, OEMs, battery management companies, and automakers together are creating a conducive ecosystem for India’s electric mobility vision.
operator that provides lithium-ion batteries for e-bikes and 3 wheelers.
Besides, they provide power to Electric Vehicles by battery swap.
The company has set Lithion Swapping Points (LSP) across North India.
We sat down with Mr.
Chandrashekhar Bhide, who is the co-founder of the company, to understand more about how the company is contributing towards the electrification of vehicles in India.
Lithion Power was originally founded by Piyush Gupta who is the CEO of the company and I am the co-founder.
Before starting Lithion Power, he was trying to create an electric bus from scratch which was in 2017 and it was a fairly ambitious project and he worked on it for more than a year.
But then it was a little bit ahead of its time.
So at that time, he decided to shift focus and pivot to batteries.
That’s when Lithion Power was born.
Our core focus is the batteries because irrespective of the size of the vehicle and customer segment, we still need battery experts and there weren't any battery experts in India.
Lithion Power was started with the agenda of becoming the most trusted and most technically qualified battery experts.
The initial product lines were all focused on batteries.
We design and develop battery management systems telemetry units, and we also started battery as a service business model.
This was around three years back that we went commercially live and till COVID-19 hit, we had about 250 odd assets on our platform that got reduced because of COVID-19.
There was a tremendous amount of pain in the system, people went back to their hometowns, there weren't too many drivers around and since we are focused more on B2B segmenting, it brought a lot of brands because of the COVID-19 and because of cash flow related issues.
Now, we are rebuilding the business.
Our numbers are right now small as compared to what we were at last year before COVID-19.
We started in Delhi and then we readily grew outwards because we wanted to have a network of closely connected battery charging and swapping stations.
Currently, our presence is in the Delhi NCR region.
But that is good enough right now because the bulk of the electric vehicle population in the country is in the Delhi NCR region.
The four northern states accounted for more than 50% of the electric vehicles in the country.
The end customer who is the driver of an electric vehicle will have a mobile app where you can see what the state of affairs in the battery is.
You will come to know what is the charge remaining in your battery, how many more kilometers you can go, etc.
The entire information is available in real-time.
You will also have a real-time map or live location map for the Lithion Swapping Points in your vicinity, typically in a 3-5 km radius.
Only those swapping points will be displayed on the map where there are batteries available at the current time.
For example, in a 5 km radius, say there are five Lithion Swap Points but at that given point of time only three of them have an available battery, then it will show only three.
You would have to drive to one of those locations that are shown on the map.
It is an assisted service model, so you don't have to do everything yourself.
There will be a person who will just ask you for your unique ID which is typically the mobile number and the operator will come to know which is the battery that is currently put in your vehicle, how many kilometers you have driven, how much money you owe for the charge since the last swapping you have done, etc.
So, all that information comes upfront.
After that, the operator will take one specific battery from a charging station.
There will typically be a charging station having multiple batteries connected, the swapping point operator has a screen in front of them wherein they can see which is the best-suited battery; it is suggested by the system.
Say, if it is a 3 x 3 matrix, then probably it will say the top left corner battery is for this particular customer.
This all takes less than a minute.
The battery is typically below the driver seat or the passenger seat, depending on the design of the vehicle.
That is physically removed from the existing vehicle, put aside, and then the charged battery is taken from the rack and then connected to the vehicle and the empty slot, the previous battery is put for charging.
The entire process takes hardly between 2-3 minutes depending on the manual dexterity of the person involved.
The end customer also pays for the energy that they have consumed in the previous cycle, and they can pay it through the mobile app.
There is payment gateway integration and customers can pay using Paytm, wallet or UPI, or any of the existing modes.
That is a simple, quick, and efficient process.
We are focused more on the B2B side of things.
We are not active in the B2C segment.
Retail individual customers like you and me probably will not be using swapping points that much because a typical individual will use their vehicle for maybe 30 - 40 kilometers, not more than 50 kilometers daily.
A single charge will be sufficient for them to cover this distance.
When the vehicle is back home in the evening or at night time, you can charge it and use the vehicle the next day.
That works for B2C, but for B2B, typically, across two customer segments: One is the shared passenger mobility.
So you would have seen hundreds of electric rickshaws, electric autos below every metro station.
They cover anywhere from 100+ kilometers daily.
The second customer segment is the last mile goods delivery, intra-city goods delivery.
These will be for e-commerce players.
Both these types of customers cover 90- 100+ kilometers daily.
A single charge, depending on the configuration of the battery, will last you anywhere from 60 - 80 kilometers and commercial fleets cannot afford to wait for 4-6 hours to get fully charged.
In fact, in the B2B segment, the vehicle, if it is standing around doing nothing, then it is not considered good.
You need to start the asset, maybe have two drivers and make them work in shifts and then run the vehicle.
In this case, you don't want to have too much downtime for the vehicle.
In this scenario, swapping is the best solution because you just swap out the battery, and in 2-3 minutes and you're done and the vehicle is back on the road.
In the B2B segment, the actual running of the vehicle is directly proportional to the revenue potential, which is why B2B makes sense.
In B2C, you don't try to get the revenue out of the driving of a car; it is for your convenience to move from point A to point B.
We believe that swapping will be preferred for the B2B segment but swapping and charging will co-exist if we look at the total electric vehicle industry in general, which includes the B2C players.
One of the challenges that we faced was the mindset of customers that the battery in my vehicle should be my battery.
There is a difference between possession of an asset versus ownership of an asset.
A good analogy could be the LPG cylinder that is used for cooking.
You and I as end customers as end-users of the LPG cylinder, do not worry that much about the owner of the cylinder.
All you are worried about is the 14.2 kg LPG inside the cylinder.
You don't even worry about how red the color is.
As long it is working fine, and not damaged, nothing else matters.
Similarly, the battery is just a container for energy.
So you need not worry about how clean the battery looks, how good the battery looks as long as you are getting your promised energy.
So, the initial customers were a little worried because they were saying this is my battery.
It took some time for them to understand that you don't worry so much about the battery because what we're promising is the energy.
Later on, people wanted to make cash payments also.
We had an online model because we were feeling that everybody will make payments using UPI, Paytm, etc.
But for the rickshaw drivers who were earning money in cash.
At the end of the day, they have a lot of cash.
So, they wanted us to accept cash which we enabled.
Those were initial challenges and now there are not so such challenges, people are comfortable using them.
The external form factor varies, but not to a great extent in the same class of vehicles.
If you've seen an electric rickshaw, it is a very standard design and there are 150 odd manufacturers of electric rickshaws or electric autos and this is in the Delhi NCR region alone, but they have a very similar design.
If you stand below a metro station, in 10 minutes you will see 30-40 different types of rickshaws, but you will notice that the design is very similar.
The battery packs are also very similar.
The Ah will vary, some batteries will have 70-100 Ah.
But, we are not dealing that much in the battery form factor; it is in the energy and as long as you are getting your required energy, it doesn't matter.
The second thing is the physical form factor.
If you have seen a battery, it is more or less the standard dimension with minor differences in inches and even the place in which the battery fits inside the vehicle that has got some space.
This is consciously built-in by the electric vehicle OEMs because they understand that batteries will be changed after a few months, a year or so.
So, there is always some space, and it is a rectangular form factor.
Next are the connectors.
Taking the gas cylinder example further, you wouldn't be facing any problem in using any kind of cylinder.
It doesn't matter who is the provider of the cylinder as long as the regulator on top of the cylinder is the same and the connector to the gas stove is the same.
We did the same thing; the connectors on both ends are standardized.
This is very true for the three-wheeler industry.
There is a connector called Anderson connector which is a kind of the de facto connector for connecting the battery to the vehicle.
So, that problem is also more or less solved.
For two-wheelers, the form factor could be an issue because, in the three-wheelers, the real estate isn't that much.
Many of the two-wheelers are not designed here, they import securities assemble here, put the label, and sell.
So, they use a standard two-wheeler battery pack which is mostly from a neighboring country.
It is also not that difficult but yes, the location or the placement of the two-wheeler battery is sometimes different.
Sometimes, it is below the seat, sometimes it is below the footrest but there are only X number of such configurations and the battery sizes are also more than three-wheeler but it is not that unmanageable.
The technical characteristics inside the battery are more important so, you need to know what is the total battery pack voltage, how much is the Ah.
The battery management system which is the heart of the battery needs to be a smart connected battery and it should have two-way communication.
This is something that we have designed and developed in India for India.
We work with multiple electric vehicle OEMs, multiple battery pack manufacturers and they use our smart connected products and their vehicles automatically come on to our platform.
We are already working with some 30 such partners, which is why we can do it for the vehicles of these OEMs.
We are not giving battery as a service; we are giving energy as a service.
For example, if you want 50 Ah, I can give you a 100 Ah battery pack with a 50 Ah charge in it for I can do a 60 Ah battery pack with a 50 Ah charge.
What you are going to pay for and what you want is a 50 Ah or whatever that number is.
For you, technically it doesn't matter what is the battery getting used as long as you get the energy and most consumers don't understand energy, but roughly the kilometers traveled.
We have the battery management systems, telemetry units, these are all designed developed by us and these continuously send data to the server/cloud on 24 x 7 basis, irrespective of whether the vehicle is running on the ground, whether the vehicle is parked, whether the battery is on the charging rack and getting charged if it is getting charged, how many more time it needs to get fully charged if it is fully charged, then what is Ah.
So, we get data 24 x 7 about what is the state of affairs of the battery and we do this on the daily basis.
We know, for every battery, what is the state of charge, what is the state of health, etc.
For the last 3+ years of commercial operations, we have collected billions of records, translating to 100 plus billions of data points.
We have built our internal models, which help us determine how good a battery is, and sometimes that is way more accurate than the manufacturersᾠdatasheet.
Because the manufacturersᾠdatasheet is for standard tests conditional check, they will have 10-star mark conditions.
But in reality, the performance will be different and we will know that because we would have seen the performance of that battery every second.
We know that battery is a collection of cells.
Multiple cells are assembled and there is electronics or printed circuit board put on top of this.
That determines how reliable and how dependable will the collective battery pack output charge will be.
There are certain features that a good battery management system should have.
It should protect against overcharging, its total voltage should not go above a particular point, so there is overcharge protection.
Similarly, there are upper and lower thresholds for the current.
A battery pack is typically rated for nominal current and a peak current.
There are optimal ranges within which a battery pack should operate.
All that is controlled by the electronics on top of it, there are multiple other sensors inside the battery pack.
For example, there will be temperature sensors and not just one; ideally, it should be multiple temperature sensors.
It will monitor temperature at different places from different points within the battery pack, the power temperature, ambient temperature, etc.
There are multiple such sensors and all of these sensors are connected and they can send data.
It has a GSM module, GPS module and in our implementation, it also has onboard memory storage so a lot of data gets collected and is sent to the cloud.
It could be individual cell voltages, current being drawn, capacity left, location parameters like latitude and longitude, few details about the vehicle, about the driver.
All these details are saved locally if there is no network availability.
If there is network availability; it is sent to the cloud.
It will constantly monitor all these parameters and ensure that it is within a specific optimal operating range.
Let’s take an example of MOSFET temperature.
MOSFET is one kind of electronics component, if the temperature crosses 85 degrees Celsius, then there could be a safety risk.
If it reaches 90 degrees, then there could be a fire.
So you need to constantly monitor and then take actions there and then.
All these things are done by a battery management system.
The telemetry unit collates the data and sends it to the server and does the communication between the connected assets and the server.
Currently, in our implementation, we have complete access to the data.
If the customer wants, we provide them access to whatever data points they need.
For example, we work with some fleet operators.
They are not so much worried about let’s say, the temperature readings, but they are worried about the utilization of their assets.
For our fleet operators and their managers, we have a dashboard wherein they can see on a live location map, where are their vehicles and drivers right now, in which direction are they headed, at what speed they are moving, what is the current being drawn every second.
There is a driver performance indicator.
From a pool of X drivers, there is a rating of each driver on a couple of parameters.
How safe is their driving, how efficient is their driving? For example, you and I will drive a vehicle differently.
You could probably drive it very safely within a certain optimal speed whereas, I could be driving it very rashly, I would be unnecessarily accelerating and then screeching to a halt.
Since we have smart electronics inside, we will come to know because the current will suddenly spike and then the next second it will drop.
So, then I will know that this particular driver is a rash driver because of the jerky driving characteristics.
There are certain trends that we can derive based on the real-time data collected and then we pass it on to the fleet operators to understand the relative driving performance of their drivers.
We believe that for B2B customers who want to use their assets for growing their business revenues; I think swapping is a very good option because it's very simple.
If you want to charge a battery by regular charging, then it will take you 4-6 hours.
If you can afford downtime of four to six hours, charging is the way to go.
If you don't want to go with that option and run your vehicles in shifts and get 1.5 -1.6 or 2x as revenue then swapping is a good solution.
But we also understand that for B2C segments, this probably is not a good solution because they don't need it.
So, we believe that battery swapping and charging will coexist and depending on the use case, depending on the type of customers, there will be a certain bunch of people who will prefer swapping and again this is more focused for three-wheelers and two-wheelers because that is the largest addressable customer segment right now.
The total number of electric cars in the country is less than 20,000 and that is scattered all over the country.
On the other hand, Delhi alone has got more than two lakh electric vehicles.
Right now, the bulk of the electric vehicle population is electric three-wheelers which is the largest segment out of 2.5 million electric vehicles in the country 2.2 million roughly are electric three-wheelers and there are about two and a half electric two-wheelers and 20,000 electric cars.
So, even though you know when people talk about electric cars, Elon Musk and Tesla come to mind right but the reality in India is that bulk of the electric vehicles is electric rickshaws and electric autos and for them, battery swapping is a very good solution.
It also depends on the electric vehicle OEM because for example, if a particular OEM decides to make their batteries not swappable, which means they cannot be physically removed from the vehicle, then, of course, they cannot get onto a third party open platform like ours.
We recently started a separate line of business which is into last-mile delivery for e-commerce partners.
Earlier, we were working with local fleet operators and we were powering their fleet.
But now, we are having an electric vehicle fleet and doing last-mile deliveries for Big Basket and a few others.
You can imagine, most of these e-commerce companies are under tremendous pressure to have some bottom-line profits.
They are having a lot of business, especially in these COVID times, the monthly volume has grown anywhere from 15%- 25% because nobody wants to get out of their homes, everybody wants everything to be delivered at that their doorstep.
All the e-commerce platforms have announced plans to have an increased number of electric vehicles in their fleets.
We are working with some of them and the vehicles are on our platform, the drivers on our platform and our drivers are the delivery boys who do the last-mile delivery to the customers.
This is something that we started a couple of months back and we are expanding with each passing month.
Right now we are in the Delhi NCR region.
But shortly we will be launching our services in a couple of other cities that as well.
These are all connected businesses.
EV charging and battery swapping business are growing along with the fleet delivery business, as in I do not want to create a swapping network where there is no fleet.
There are a few other players in the market who have created EV charging infrastructure at high rates and the utilization of that is very low i.e.
less than 5%.
On our network, the utilization is very high because it co-exists and it is co-located with the fleet delivery vehicle.
We believe that whatever businesses we are in right now going to tremendously increase in the next year, more players are coming in.
Of course, everybody knows about Tesla setting up a subsidiary in India.
Some large traditional auto giants are tying up with battery swapping pioneers outside India and now starting it in India as well.
So this space is going to see a tremendous amount of action.
And we are ready!
article/is-flash-memory-just-a-derivative-of-eeprom-how-to-choose-the-right-memory-for-your-application
Is Flash Memory just a derivative of EEPROM? How to choose the right one for your applications?
which are then classified into further more types.
.
In-depth understanding of EEPROM & Flash Memory
per cell before damaging the memory.
Also, it usually takes around 5ms to make the newly overwritten data non-volatile.
Initially, EEPROM was designed to read more than it is written.
EEPROM is not suitable for storing media where data is very frequently written and read.
Whereas, Flash memory is used in that case of storing media that to up to largeGBof data.
As said earlier, EEPROM was designed to be read more, it is typically reserved for permanent code storage in ICs.
Whereas, flash devices would require less than 100us to write, but around hundreds of milliseconds to be erased.
As mentioned above, the major difference between EEPROM and Flash memory is their read/write/erase operations.
Let us have a look at their individual architectures and understand the operations.
Architecture of EEPROM
In EEPROM, bytes are arranged into pages and the read, write and erase commands can be performed at the byte level.
The image below shows how a byte is placed on different pages altogether.
This comes as ease for a write operation, as old data can be written simply by overwriting with new data to the required address, which is not the case for Flash memory.
Whereas, if we see the architecture of flash memory below, we will observe that they are stacked in a block manner, Read more about it!
The architecture of Flash memory
In flash memory, all the memory information is stacked in blocks, and each block then stored in multiple pages.
In flash memory, due to its block-like architecture, erase can only be done at the block level, and read or write can be done at block, page, or byte-level based upon the type of gate used.
In the above paragraph, we discussed that the write operation for EEPROM is comparatively easier, whereas, for write operations in Flash memory, it can only be performed in the erased state.
This means Flash memory is erased in sections whose sizes and locations in chips are defined by the manufacturer.
Due to this, if flash memory is programmed, the entire section containing that location must be erased in order to be programmed again.
Some Additional Pointers and Conclusions
EEPROM and Flash memory both support the same commands, Erase, Write and Read operations.
Write cycles are faster in Flash than EEPROM.
Read cycles are faster in EEPROM than in Flash
Erase cycles are faster in Flash than EEPROM.
article/comparision-between-popular-iot-operating-systems
Which is the Best Embedded OS for IoT Applications? ᾠA Comparison between Popular IoT Operating Systems
, it actually means that an embedded operating system within the IoT devices connects to a network of devices.
IoT Operating Systems and Why do we use them?
system computers.
As well as for the home the smart fridges, smart switches/fans, and entertainment devices all are enabled with IoT embedded OS.
As a standard operating system like Windows, Linux, macOShelps us to manage or access software on a computer, but an IoT embedded-OSallows us to execute an operation with connected devices.
Many of IoT-OS platforms are offered as open-source, so users are allowed to review the code and modify it as required for the IoT applications.
).
The IoT-OS is built for low resource utilization, with constraints related to size, memory, power, and processing capacity.
By choosing the right IoT-OS, users will be able to set up IoT devices, which will run in any situation in any scenario.
Because these OSs are open-source, users can select a particular framework depending on there’s operations.
Selecting the best IoT Operating System for your Application
After understanding the what and why of IoT-OS, we can easily select the right OS for completing our IoT operations.
Because the IoT-OS is an open-source platform, so, in the market lots of IoT-OS are available.
Now, we can check one by one.
article to know more about this Embedded OS.
What is your choice of Embedded OS and why? Let us know in the comment section.
article/here-is-why-you-should-use-via-stitching-for-your-next-pcb-design
Here is why you should use Via Stitching for your next PCB Design
There are multiple instances where a well-designed circuit has failed in the POC stage or in the Production Stage because of a bad PCB design.
PCB design is an art where all components sit together and the connections are done via copper traces.
in the design and thus affecting the poor ground bounce.
What is Via Stitching?
, let's understand what is the Via.
Take a look at the image below.
The above image shows a two-layer board that has a base material.
This base material can be a wooden-clad board or glass board type of material.
This material or specifically this board has copper above and below the plane.
Thus, the thing looks like this.
The above image is showing different layers in the multi-stack board.
Now, if someone wants to make a connection from the above copper plane to the below copper plane, he/she will have to add a VIA.
VIA is nothing but a hole drilled through the base material of PCB during the production stage of the PCB, the inner layer of this hole is filled with copper to allow it to carry the copper traces acrossdifferent layers of the PCB.
Now, since this can be made in any place, why not use it in the actual Larger Copper plane of the PCB? Well, yes it can be done, and when you do that it is called Via Stitching
Understanding PCB Via Stitching
A via stitching is a process where multiple numbers of vias are used to drill the copper areas on different layers and then connected.
It is generally done on the larger copper planes, such as Ground filling planes, Power planes, etc.
processes available in the PCB design that are different from others but at the same time, it is the same in terms of the concept.
The different Via stitching can be summarisedas:
Constant Ground Via stitching
Thermal Via stitching
Shielding Via stitching
Constant GroundVia Stitching
from the load devices to the power source.
Thus, it maintains a healthy ground return path obtaining low resistance in the ground plane.
It produces lower heat dissipation since the copper pour is larger and is connected with the top and bottom layer or with the other layers as well if the design supports more than two layers of the copper plane, resulting in a low drop resistance.
It keeps the balance of the copper resistance across all places in the PCB.
Thus, if someone measures the voltage drop between ground planes at different places, due to different resistance, different voltage drop causes the ground bounce issue.
Via stitching is very effective and it takes a low effort compared with debugging a faulty ground bounce in the PCB.
, where the Via stitching is used successfully.
Here are some images with shows via stitching, I have highlighted them in red for better understanding.
Not only in Ground Plane, it can also be used for other desired places where the Copper pour needs to be perfect.
Stitching via is used in a different layer other than the Ground plane.
The actual images of the PCB are shown below.
Thermal Via Stitching
In the above PCB or others, it is very helpful in distributing the heat over the copper plane.
As the PCB is much more conducive on the layer segment where the high power component is seated.
It becomes too hot and the heat is only distributed sideways whereas the PCB core and the other opposite layer stays cooler than the active traces.
Stitching at this point makes it more thermally conductive through-plane conductivity which further dissipates the heat to the core and further to the connected opposite plane which reduces the overall junction temperature of the targeted high power component.
Shielding Via Stitching
Generally, it is created using a single or multiple rows of vias stitched across the perimeter of the large copper plane that is too close to the high-frequency tracks.
The design given below uses the Via shielding on a 4-layer circuit board.
As we can see, it is done across the perimeter of the ground plane that is too close to the Antenna of the WiFi module.
Generally, it is suggested to use the Shielded Via stitching on an RF board where the vias are spaced at a minimum of 1/10th of the targeted wavelength of the highest frequency that needs to be shielded from interfacing.
In some practices, it is done with 1/8th of spaces as well.
But the major attention is to keep the vias spacing small compared with the wavelength in the substrate dielectric.
interview/nikita-baliarsingh-cofounder-and-coo-of-nexus-power-on-how-their-company-is-making-ev-batteries-from-crop-residue
Nikita Baliarsingh, Co-Founder & COO of Nexus Power on How Their Company is Making EV Batteries From Crop Residue and What Impact it Will Have on the EV Market
in 2019.
The company is working on an alternative to a green energy battery solution.
The duo has come up with the idea of manufacturing a completely organic battery using a biodegradable material.
Curious to know what the company does, we had a conversation with Ms.
Nikita Baliarsingh, who is the co-founder and the COO of the company.
The first thing that we came across when we were thinking about startups and the ecosystem in India, we realized that electric vehicles are not popular in the market.
Though we have a lot of offerings, people are not buying them, and that’s because there are a few things that the Indian consumer finds difficult to adjust with.
And major of these concerns are related to the battery because the lithium-ion batteries take a long time to charge, they're hazardous to the environment, in fact, they're toxic.
It's difficult to procure them as well.
So, you have to import it from different places and assemble it here in India.
What we thought was why not have something that you can generate or build from the country itself, because there is so much material available here.
If any of them can be a good substitute for lithium, why not try and work on that and make batteries from that.
That is how we began this entire research to try and find out an alternate material that is abundantly available in India.
Probably through a few books and a few research papers, we found out that there is a material, in fact not a material but nutrients (proteins) that are there in living organisms, which does almost a similar kind of a function of electron transfer.
We tried to use that artificially with the process called bio-mimicry.
We wanted to use it in batteries and see if it works.
We were lucky because it turned out to be a very efficient substitute for lithium.
That's how we began this entire journey, and then we stumbled upon crop residue as a source to extract these proteins.
The reason why we decided to go into alternate material was actually that India was not producing lithium-ion batteries, they were being assembled here.
We thought we need something which we can make in India, not just assemble but manufacture.
Besides, we wanted an eco-friendly alternative because lithium is not an environmentally-friendly option.
As I mentioned, we use an element called proteins, different protein structures, and different chemical bonds because proteins are the natural element present in living organisms and are available in abundance.
So, this is automatically biodegradable, which is not hazardous to the environment.
We make three structural elements, which is the electrodes like cathode, anode, and the electrolyte using these proteins.
Multiple kinds of proteins go into the entire chemistry and that's how the entire cell is made and that is the reason why it is also biodegradable.
There are certain advantages that we have found so far.
We don't want to claim any numbers right now because it's subject to a lot of licensing and certifications.
But to give you a little brief, they are of course non-hazardous at all.
It's cheaper than lithium batteries because the sourcing of raw material is cheap and the entire processing happens in India itself.
So, there is no import-export duty involved.
The entire battery eventually gets cheaper.
Apart from that, there is one interesting thing that we found which we were not looking at in the beginning.
We found that the proteins are very efficient at electron transfer.
Also, the charge time that a battery should take drastically reduces.
So, if you say, the lithium-ion battery takes about 4-5 hours to attain full charge, the Nexus batteries might just be able to achieve that in say 40-45 minutes, which is quite a lesser time as compared to lithium-ion batteries.
We are still in the R&D and still want to shorten this charging time.
We want to maybe wrap up a full charge in say 10 to 15 minutes, or something, which is as quick as refueling your car at a petrol station maybe.
We are trying to achieve that efficiency of the battery, but it already shows us promising results.
Along with this, proteins also tend to be sticky with each other.
So, they bond very well.
When they bond very well and close, they give you a longer range as well.
Probably, if you could drive a two-wheeler EV for 65 or 70 kilometers, this battery could give you a range of 100+ kilometers in one charge.
And it has been showing us promising results.
We are being hopeful to go ahead to the longer range also.
But of course, these numbers will only come into the picture once we've licensed the entire product and certified by certain agencies of the government, then only we will claim all the numbers.
It's not exactly light in weight.
The energy density is a different material that we are using.
So, overall, the battery is not light, it's probably at par lithium-ion batteries.
It's almost the same weight, though we've not done this comparison of the entire battery pack and how it weighs in comparison to lithium-ion batteries.
But it doesn't matter much with the weight.
It's with the energy density, the power density that the battery carries, which is a little higher as compared to lithium-ion batteries.
The material is used for electron transfer, that's the basic purpose of proteins.
So they do it efficiently wherever you put them, that is what matters.
But, of course, the batteries can be made in various sizes because we're using nano-materials and we are going down into the basic cell chemistry.
The battery that we make can be made in different sizes and structures, depending upon the industry standards.
But I don't think it's anything to do with the weight of the cell of the entire battery.
It's going to be as heavy as lithium-ion batteries.
When we started, we were not sure of a lot of things in this domain.
It was just a very vague idea to start researching and start reading about it.
Butme and my co-founder Nishita, neither of us are engineering graduates.
So, that was another challenge, we had to first understand the basic units of all of these and then try and work on them.
So, we did take up a few courses online, a few certificate programs from Institutes like IIT to understand the entire domain.
And then we plunged into it.
We used to read through research papers and try and understand as much as we could.
So, there was not much of a technical challenge, it was more of a reading thing.
The more knowledge we gained, the better we got at it.
That's how it was!
Because we were very passionate about the electric vehicles and components of electric vehicles, it was nothing that we thought is stopping us from going ahead with this entire plan, and we were quite excited to work on it.
So, we didn't feel that we might be technically handicapped, or there might be a problem that we might face.
We just kept going with the flow.
And we kept enjoying what we were trying to experiment with.
We made our prototype at home during the lockdown in 2020.
Once that was ready, the confidence level that we had gone higher than what we had at the beginning of this entire project.
Eventually, we had a team on board and people started joining us and things started changing.
So, right now it's quite stable, quite comfortable for us.
Nothing was challenging in terms of technology, but yes, few things do come your way which you have to deal with anyhow.
It's a crude form prototype; it does not have the BMS (battery management system) yet.
We’re still working on the R&D of the efficiency.
But we did make a 48 volt, 36 amp variant.
48 volt is one which we use in two-wheeler electric vehicles.
Based on that specification, we made a crude form prototype and we tested that in a two-wheeler.
We tested its ability to power the two-wheeler vehicle and charge and retention rate and mechanical stability, etc.
So, these tests are still going on, and the results are very promising.
That's why we are going ahead with the entire project; we are still doing the R&D.
So, we're looking forward to probably get into proper market tests sometimes in 2022 and then go commercial by the later half that year hopefully if the lockdowns and other restrictions don't come into the picture, we'll be able to achieve our timelines.
Ideally, we have made one battery-pack prototype (crude form prototype) which efficiently proves that this battery can power the electric vehicle; it has the mechanical stability to be used on vehicles for daily commute.
And it also charges a little faster as compared to lithium-ion batteries.
We are conducting tests to find out the lifecycle, the strength of the battery, how many charge cycles can it handle before it would start degrading, etc.
These are the basic tests that we keep doing every day because every day we come up with new material because there are various types of proteins.
Every protein can give you a different result, and that's how the entire research is going on.
So every day, we come up with new material; we try and test that, if it works, we go ahead, otherwisewe discontinue and go ahead with other material.
We plan to bring it to the market around the fourth quarter of 2022, which is about a year and a half from now.
So ideally, we want to start with doing a lot of market tests.
We would like to have tie-ups with a few OEMs.
So, we want to conduct initial market tests and then larger pilot programs to make sure that the batteries are real good efficiency of suited lithium-ion batteries.
Once we are done with all of those, we would want to go commercial.
And when we get into the commercial launch of the batteries, we will look at having a lot of brand tie-ups.
There are a lot of brands already manufacturing electric vehicles, two-wheelers vehicles, and three-wheeler vehicles.
So, we want to have a tie-up with them and want them to have our batteries put into their vehicles.
We're looking at a B2B model and we look at tying up with quite efficient and quite well-known brands.
Hopefully, we will be able to manage that.
Yes, most likely, we are targeting the two-wheeler and three-wheeler market at the same time, because the configuration of the battery for these two segments is very similar.
Looking at the market, they already exist.
So we have two-wheelers and three-wheeler electric vehicles already in the market.
So, it's easier to do the market tests.
And it's also more than convenient to step into the market with these variants.
Compared to four-wheelers, there's still a long time to go for them to be a household commodity for a four-wheeler to be a fully electric vehicle.
So there's still a long way to go.
And the battery configuration, the specifications are slightly different as compared to two-wheeler or three-wheeler vehicles.
So, I think we first want to cater to the two-wheeler and three-wheeler segments and be sure of the product.
And then reach out to the four-wheeler side and try and do the R&D on that side.
In the end, Nikita added that entrepreneurship isn’t something that requires a lot of money to start with or that you need to have a very good team to start.
What’s most important in this entire space is that as a founder you have to be emotionally very stable.
You need to have your grounds and you should be very stable.
Besides, you don't have to be affected much with any highs and lows.
So, it's good to be cool and calm in all situations.
You have to come and take every day as it comes to you.
And you cannot be very highly ambitious or you can't be very humble with your product as well.
So, you just have to maintain a balance, and probably that is going to help in going forward.
article/the-reason-for-global-shortage-of-electronic-components-and-how-the-companies-are-fighting-it
The Reason for Global Shortage of Electronic Components and How the companies are Fighting It
Semiconductors, we all know are the inevitable part of the modern tech world we live in.
In fact, the world runs on chips! They are the key component of the electronic device we use, be it electronic devices, cars, medical devices, airplanes, smart appliances, or wearables.
Not just that, semiconductors are even used for military purposes and likewise.
In a year, approximately around 1 trillion chips are made and for every person on the planet, there are 128 chips.
Intel from the US, Samsung from South Korea, and TSMC from Taiwan are the top companies that manufacture the most advanced chips.
two months back, but the situation still hasn’t improved.
Todayᾠwe thought of shedding some light and understanding why exactly this happened and when will this issue be resolved? We will also be talking about what’s being done to fix it and if the electronic component supply will be back on the track soon or will it take time?
Why did the Global Chip Shortage happen and which sectors are affected the most
The pandemic forced people to work from home and students too were persuaded to sit back home and take online classes.
This led to upgrading the computers, people got involved in playing video games, businesses scrambled to set up remote work systems and required more cloud infrastructure.
It so happened that the consumers stocked up on computers and other electronics out of insecurity that they might not get the proper supply.
Thisled to supply chain disruption.
It’s the auto industry that is aiming to add more and more in-vehicle features, which has led to the shortage of semiconductors.
What does Stats Indicate?
Semiconductors are in short supply because of the rising demand for electronics.
This has led to the shift in business models, thereby creating a bottleneck among outsourced chip factories.
When top chipmaker, SMIC got blacklisted by the US, it couldn’t purchase advanced manufacturing gear from the United States.
So, the sanctions prompted big chip buyers to go to TSMC, thereby creating a bottleneck.
China also stopped buying chips from elsewhere.
The US and China both want to be “The Tech Superpowerᾠand the US has accused China of intellectual property theft and human rights violations and has also blocked some Chinese companies from accessing US technologies.
Moreover, China is investing a lot in tech self-sufficiency to reduce its dependency on other countries.
What’s the solution?
American president, Joe Biden has ordered industry experts to look for gaps in the semiconductor supply and chain to see how reliant has the country become on other countries to meet semiconductor needs.
Semiconductor shortage has persuaded the White House to take steps to combat the situation in bringing the supply chain in the US back to the track.
The main problem to be resolved is not catching up after the supply chain crisis, but preventing such a scenario to take place in the future.
and with the expansion in the number and popularity of IoT devices.
What companies are doing to resolve the Issue?
opening its doors to produce chips for other companies, thereby adding a new major supplier to the marketplace.
Four new factories (two by Intel Corp and one by TSMC in Arizona, and another by Samsung in Texas) are slated.
China too has offered a myriad of subsidies to the chip industry as it tries to reduce its dependence on Western technology.
Let’s hope that with adequate measures being taken across the globe, the chip shortage issue is resolved and we don’t have to face such scenarios in the years to come.
article/riot-free-and-open-source-os-for-embedded-iot-devices
RIOT - Free and Open Source Operating System for Embedded IoT Devices
(IoT), we use various embedded devices and systems to execute and obtain data from various fields.
Whenever we talk about embedded and IoT devices, we always think about what microcontroller/microprocessor we have used and most importantly what kind of firmware we are going to use to obtain the data precisely, without any time latency.
So, when it comes to time-latency in any embedded IoT project, we always choose an Embedded-OS that is better suited for that specific application that easily enhances the performances.
What is RIOT OS?
gathering companies, academia, and hobbyists, distributed all around the world.
This OS supports low-power IoT devices, and various microcontrollers like 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit and developed for memory-constrained systems with a focus on low-power wireless IoT devices.
Different Features Supported by IOT OS
party packages (like lwIP Stack, uIP, Open-thread stack).
Other than the mentioned features, it also supports various 32-bit platforms and also supports 16-bit & 8-bit platform (like Arduino Nano/Uno, MSP430, x86, ARM, MIPS, AVR, etc)
that code now can run onto a different microcontrollerss to do the same operation without changing anything into the code or configuration.
Installing RIOT OS in a Linux Based System
because the support of Microsoft Windows is under development.
and to create the development environment, we need to install the prerequisite before setting up the RIOT OS.
sudo apt-get update && sudo apt-get upgrade
sudo apt-get install build-essential cppcheck git make gcc pkg-config
autoconf automake libtool libusb-dev libusb-1.0-0-dev
libhidapi-dev libftdi-dev g++-multilib gcc-multilib python3-serial curl doxygen
graphviz pcregrep python python3 python3-flake8 unzip wget
sudo add-apt-repository ppa:npalix/coccinelle
sudo apt-get install coccinelle
After installing all requirements, now we can set up the RIOT OS.
For that, we need to create a workspace folder for download and git clone the latest release of RIOT OS.
To do this, follow these steps:
cd $HOME
mkdir riot_workspace
cd riot_workspace/
git clone git://github.com/RIOT-OS/RIOT.git
cd RIOT/
git checkout 2021.01
Now it’s time to set up the Hardware Toolchain, depending on the hardware you want to use.
Today, in our case, we use ESP8266 for demonstrating the RIOT OS example.
For the ESP8266 toolchain, we need to create a folder named “espᾮ
cd $HOME
cd riot_workspace/
mkdir -p esp
cd esp/
So, after creating the hardware-specific folder, now it’s time to download the toolchain and cross-compiler for ESP8266.
Mkdir -p $HOME/riot_workspace/esp
cd $HOME/riot_workspace/esp
git clone https://github.com/gschorcht/xtensa-esp8266-elf
mkdir -p $HOME/riot_workspace/esp
cd $HOME/riot_workspace/esp
git clone https://github.com/gschorcht/RIOT-Xtensa-ESP8266-RTOS-SDK.git ESP8266_RTOS_SDK
cd ESP8266_RTOS_SDK/
git checkout release/v3.1-for-riot-os-v2
To use the ESP8266 Xtensa compiler andESP8266 RTOS SDK, we need to set an environment variable.
We need to set these two environment variables whenever we develop an ESP8266 RIOT OS base application]
export PATH=$HOME/riot_workspace/esp/xtensa-esp8266-elf/bin:$PATH
export ESP8266_RTOS_SDK_DIR=$HOME/riot_workspace/esp/ESP8266_RTOS_SDK
After completing the installation of the RIOT OS & ESP8266 Toolchain, it is time to build an example for ESP8266.
So, we need to navigate to folder RIOT/examples/hello-world and set the upper mention environment variables.
cd $HOME/riot_workspace/RIOT/examples/hello-world
export PATH=$HOME/riot_workspace/esp/xtensa-esp8266-elf/bin:$PATH
export ESP8266_RTOS_SDK_DIR=$HOME/riot_workspace/esp/ESP8266_RTOS_SDK
for the supported board’s list.
make BOARD=esp8266-esp-12x
Now, Flash the newly built Hello_world Example into ESP8266.
For flash, the code we need to call this command.
make BOARD=esp8266-esp-12x PORT=/dev/ttyUSB0 flash term
button of the ESP8266 dev board to get the log on the screen.
Benefits of using RIOT OS in Embedded and IoT Based Systems
Nowadays, what we see, what we hold, are all directly indirectly connected with the Internet.
So, IoT devices are easily available for everyone and development is also becoming easy with the help of the development environment RIOS OS.
for that reason, it saves time between any operations, which is very important for IoT projects.
And of course, the most important is security.
So, RIOT OS is embedded with DTLS transport layer security, IEEE 802.15.4 encryption, Secure Firmware Updates (SUIT), multiple cryptographic packages, and crypto secure elements.
interview/vijayeendra-cofounder-director-of-avanijal-agri-automation-on-how-irrigation-drip-controllers-help-farmers-achieve-best-irrigation-automation
Automation on Irrigation/Drip Controllers Irrigation
Farming in India has been one of the most stressful occupations.
Farmers have to face challenges like water scarcity, patchy power supply, and labor issues that consistently lead to poor yield.
One of the biggest farming challenges in India is irrigation, which adds to the hardships of the farmers.
Understanding these problems and in the quest to help farmers with a technically advanced solution, Mr.
Vijayeendra along with his co-founder started the company named Avanijal Agri Automation.
The company manufactures agricultural-based systems and controllers to automate the entire agricultural process so that the farmers can save water, electricity and also avoid labor problems.
To discuss about the company, the agricultural automation process, and much more, we had word with Mr.
Vijayeendra, who is the Co-founder and director of the company.
There are other activities too which we are not involved in terms of the de-weeding and other things like pest management.
Our involvement is in helping the farmer in managing their irrigation and nutrient delivery using automated systems with the help of different technologies, which we deploy as part of the product.
We started in 2013 and my other co-founder is from an agricultural family.
He had a certain viewpoint about how things are done and how agriculture is practiced in India.
We started from basics and we knew that we had to help the farmers in their irrigation management and we knew that the world is facing water problems, and India is no exception.
We had other problems too in our minds that we wanted to focus on.
We wanted to help the farmers with the technology intervention.
Another factor that was in our mind was that agriculture is one of the areas which had the least amount of technology intervention more so, in India.
I would say probably the same is true around the world in different places, but other countries are far ahead in this aspect.
We went around and looked at what are the problems that the farmers are facing and we saw that they have less water to irrigate which is one of the most basic problems.
Secondly, to pump the water they need power (electricity), and there is a shortage of power in India.
We might say that there are villages that are electrified, but that is true only to the extent of domestic electricity, but irrigation power is still facing a shortage.
The irrigation power they get is only for about 6-8 hours.
In summers, it is even lesser.
The third problem is that India, despite being a very populous country, and 60% of the people living in the rural areas of our country, it is hard to get good farm labor to manage farm activities, like irrigation, de-weeding, fertilizer delivery, etc.
It is because the rural population is migrating towards urban areas in search of more stable income.
Rural agricultural income is more seasonal, only when agriculture activity is going on, the labor gets money otherwise they have to engage themselves in some other activities.
The fourth problem is the lack of adoption of good agriculture practices.
If you see the practices of agriculturists, most of them are still stuck in the practices that were being practiced decades ago, or what their father or grandfather was doing.
Only a few people have adopted better practices by learning from the scientific community or looking at others and through their thought process evolution.
At the same time, the scientific community's involvement in agriculture at a practice level is also low in terms of better interaction and better transfer of technology.
We also kept talking to different people to know more about practical problems other than these things.
Taking these problems into consideration, we tried developing the product.
We also researched the products that are already available in the market, and we came to know that most of the products are imported and not manufactured in India.
Besides, we got to know that there are a couple of other companies, which are at our stage of starting the company in India and to develop these things, but they were in a very early stage.
So, there were no set benchmark products for us to look at.
We learned about the imported products, the features they provide, and if they are suitable for Indian farmers, their price points, etc.
This all went into design upon production, and it took about three and a half years for us to develop this product.
Initially, we planned to have a few variants of the product targeting different segments of the farming community, but later we realized that may not be the right model because a lot of people were asking for added features.
So, we decided to make the basic product available with 20 other features (both hardware and the software functional features), which they can choose from at a different price and all adding to their basic product.
So, that is the current model in terms of the offering.
What helps the farmer at the most basic level is delivering the required amount of water to each part of the farm.
Their farm maybe five acres or 10 acres, and they may be growing more than one crop on their farm.
Each crop requires a different amount of water and different amount of nutrients and different types of nutrients.
Once the system is deployed, they can program with the help of an app that we provide on their smartphone.
They can program what they want to deliver, like how much water they want to deliver or how many nutrients they want to deliver at what intervals and for how long in a day or for how long at different intervals and things like that.
Once that is done, whenever there is power available, the controller will monitor the power and voltages.
So, that it does not go out of range for the pump to function correctly.
That way, the pump is protected in the case of overvoltage or under voltage, and then it delivers the amount of water.
If you ask a scientist or an agronomist, they will say, deliver 10,000 liters or 12,000 liters of water per acre, but measuring water flow and then taking that feedback and then controlling is the next step that is a more precise way of doing it because it adds to the cost of flow meter and other things.
Most people are used to delivering water by the time.
There can be a lot of variation in terms of 30%- 40% in terms of based on the voltage variation, based on level of water in a bore well but people are okay with that and they can live with that kind of variation because they want to save cost.
Whenever there is power, it will deliver for one hour, two hours in two different zones.
And at the end of the day, for irrigation, if the power is still there, it will probably wait for the appropriate time.
Once irrigation cycling is done for all the areas, you wait for another 12 hours or 20 hours and then initiate the program.
So, it will wait for that period, and then start the next day or start after four hours or whatever.
This is the most basic functionality.
Besides voltage variation is the quantity of power available for farming and irrigation is one problem and the other is the quality of power or the voltage being in the range.
Secondly, it is available continuously for six hours that is what the electricity supply companies say.
And it's not true, every half an hour or one hour, 10 minutes, there is power interruption; it keeps going and coming back.
It creates a lot of problems or even for the farm labor to go and turn it on, turn it off and set the valve whichever valve has to be turned on at any given point in time.
When the power is available at the night, nobody wants to go to the farm and then manage the irrigation, including the owner of the farm; he will not want to go because it is risky as there could be any creature.
The product our company manufactures addresses these kinds of difficulties.
For individual farmers, anybody who has land of five acres or above can use our system.
It is cost-effective as they can get back their returns and all the investment in terms of labor cost saving as well as yield improvement, which is purely economic for a farmer.
They can get back their money in about one to two years, provided they're growing medium to high-value products.
These are not very suitable for Paddy and wheat because they are the most staple crops.
It could be used for any horticulture crop, be it coconut, banana, papaya, any fruit, flowers, pomegranate, grapes, etc.
For small farmers, there is another way to use it.
If somebody has one acre or two acres of land, he can use the control system by community farming method.
Let's say four or five farmers are coming together to use this system.
One control system can be deployed for four or five farmers; they can share the cost of the controller and still get what they want to be done in terms of their irrigation and nutrient management.
Secondly, let's say if you have only one source of water to be delivered to multiple farmers.
Our control system can act like a multi-user system for up to four users and then from one of their water sources, it can deliver water.
This way, each farmer can control their part of their water source and delivery of water.
This way, the cost of the controller can be shared.
This will enable a small farmer to be able to use it without bothering about the expense.
In some of our customer cases, farmers do not buy the product directly, but it is enabled by an NGO which is helping the farmers in this case.
Right now, we are collecting data, but we are yet to do the analysis, which is in our plan for the immediate future.
The kind of data we collect is the amount of irrigation that will take place (time and volume).
If one adopts a flow meter, they can precisely deliver 8000 liters, 9000 liters, or 10,000 liters per zone, whatever is there on the plan.
That is the one thing they can program.
So, the amount of water delivered, the amount of fertilizer delivered either in time or volume that is what is gathered.
That is probably the most important thing in terms of Agronomical analysis, which is what we are planning to do.
Let's say you have this data, along with other data, in terms of what were the ground conditions and the atmospheric condition at that time.
Once you have that, an agronomist can look at that whole data for the whole cycle of the crop and then suggest better practices for the next cycle that is at a very macro level.
This is what we're planning to do going forward.
The other data that is collected is how long was the power was available, when did the power come.
This kind of data will be available for other stakeholders in this whole process in terms of optimizing the power supply that may be useful.
Initially, we wanted to see whether we can deploy an ‘on-the-ground sensorᾠfor soil moisture sensing, soil temperature sensing, and gathering weather data with temperature and humidity, etc.
For every zone, the unit deploys these sensors, at least for the soil and one sensor for the atmosphere as a whole.
Practically, there is no company I would say which has developed goods sensors, which can be deployed very easily.
So, we had to import and do the integration with our solution, but what we realized is that they are so expensive that it becomes impractical for a farmer to deploy for every zone.
So, we looked at other alternative solutions that could give similar data and what can help the user, though it may not be as accurate as real-time, but it comes at a very low cost.
What we are trying to offer now is satellite image-based sensing.
Deep Learning Artificial Intelligence is applied to the image, which is acquired from multiple satellites both visible and radar data.
This image process data is also crunched with the weather data for that particular area in terms of what is the air temperature, humidity, etc.
And then a recommendation for that day is made available.
Our controller is integrated with that kind of system which is offered by one of our partner companies.
Our controller tells the amount of water irrigated on a particular day.
The system will collect all the data, and it will be easy to compute the entire data in a few seconds.
The only on-the-ground sensor we may have to deploy would be the rain sensor.
Rain is a very discreet event and India has very small climatic zones.
If it rains a lot, we may have to stop irrigation.
Other than that, all other data comes from multiple satellites.
Yes, it’s a viable replacement; only thing is that after you deploy the on-the-ground sensors correctly, you have to calibrate it correctly, which may take a couple of days.
But in the case of satellite image processing-based sensing, it takes a couple of weeks for the values to be stabilized.
But, if there are a few more sensors deployed and other areas are covered, probably the learning time can be reduced, but it will take a couple of weeks in a new zone or area, where we deploy for it to learn and it is very economical.
It can cost a couple of 1000 Rupees per acre per year for a farmer to use this kind of system.
We are still in the early stage; the accuracy is supposed to be about 80% to 85% compared to the on-the-ground sensor, so that way, it is pretty accurate.
You don't need 100% accuracy for agriculture sensing.
So that way, it is a pretty practical solution.
But it will take time.
People still may not believe in on-the-ground sensors.
When you tell them that I don't deploy anything on the farm, but I can still tell you what you need? They don’t believe.
Farmers will take time to believe in the technology, however, we have started doing it for few customers.
Currently, our control system which is deployed along with the actuators requires some rain-proof shelter as it's not IP Ingress protected box.
So, we didn't feel that is very necessary because anybody who has this; they have some kind of shelter, even if they don't have a room.
We have been able to deploy it in standout boxes like syntax boxes or some kind of metallic box, wooden or cement boxes, which is good enough.
It has to be a rainproof shelter, and it works well at higher temperatures, obviously at 40-45 degrees kind of geographies in India.
But the biggest challenge we faced anywhere is thequality of the power.
The variation of input power is so high that we had to redesign our power supply circuit many times to be able to meet the widest range and then protect our system from all the issues created by this kind of incorrect deployment or incorrect supply issues and there are even many places where farmers use bad methods to tap power.
Power tapping creates a lot of spikes and surges on the system that burnt a couple of controllers before we realized what was happening.
Now, we have designed it in a way that stimulates the whole system.
Obviously, along with our control systems, we have installed some accessories to be able to manage this properly.
We have realized and understood that we should not design everything ourselves, we should use what is available off-the-shelf and what is economical.
That way, the full solution is very affordable for the farmers.
Secondly, lightning can cause damages because the wires are spread out through the farm, any kind of lightning can damage.
You cannot protect against lightning, but you can only take some precautions.
So, the way we design our box and cabling and all that it is very easily removable, the cables are easily removable.
You can also turn off the power to protect the controller during the rainy season.
Another wayof handling the damages is insurance that canhelp you save cost to repair, and get a warranty, etc.
Also, awareness among the farming community is the biggest challenge in terms of penetrating our market reach.
Secondly, farmers have been used to not paying the full amount because they get subsidies for a lot of different things they buy.
The automation systems are not subsidized by most governments, though, Karnataka government declared they will have something but I think it did not get rolled out probably in the most efficient way; maybe it's still not there actually.
We work with solar power also, and it has its challenges in terms of variation due to the radiation.
We have done some improvements, and we have tested our product in the early stage, which can be tested normally, in one day, we had to take about four or five days because power is available only for three hours or four hours on the farm, so we had to wait till next day before continue with the testing.
As of now, we are not offering on-the-ground sensing as part of the Avanijal solution.
If somebody wants it, we have other companies who may supply that, we may integrate with that, but right now we are not even talking about it because once you talk about it, then they will ask for the price.
And once you tell the price, and then say I don't want it.
So, there is no point in wasting a lot of time telling that sensing is available but at this price.
There is no point in trying to drag them to deploy a very expensive solution.
Even in western countries, people can't afford these solutions, even if they have large lands, it's very difficult.
So, on-the-ground sensing is not a very practical solution.
There may be other service providers like this who may want to collaborate with more than one such satellite image processing recommendation service provider, and you may integrate with them to be able to offer customers different choices.
But I think that is a way to go.
The reason is that it starts at a lower cost, though it is not very accurate and it has its own learning time.
As time goes by, because it is a learning system, it will get better, and it cannot get worse.
Another problem with on-the-ground sensing is as the roots go deeper and deeper; you have to keep shifting the height of the sensor.
Secondly, whenever you are changing the crop, you have to change the depth and take it out and then redeploy all of these practical issues.
They're too cumbersome for anybody to do that.
And, it'll have its maintenance, annual maintenance fees, etc.
which I think will be very dissuading for any user to deploy.
We started selling 3 years back and we have about 40-45 installations so far in a few states inKarnataka, Maharashtra, UP, etc.
Most of the farmers are either having 5 - 10 acres, and one farmer has about 100 acres of land in Maharashtra.
The beauty of that is if the irrigation system is well designed, our solution can manage even 50 to 200 acres.
We don’t say that our controller does everything but the irrigation system which is designed underneath this also has to be properly designed, only then you can get the benefit of this since it is a layer of irrigation basic irrigation system.
In India, I would say, it is still nascent because the awareness itself is lacking in most people.
Only a few percent of the farmers, maybe less than 5% of the farmers want to try on their own.
First of all, it requires micro-irrigation to be set up.
Practically, micro-irrigation penetration in India is quite low.
If you assume that 25% of the farmers have deployed, out of that 85% of them will be small and marginal farmers.
On their own, they will not be able to deploy this kind of thing, somebody has to help them or they have to come together on a cooperative basis.
So, what it leaves is about 10 - 15%, and then again in that small percentage of farmers are aware, and then they want to try it out.
So that way, at this stage, it is very nascent but still catching up.
If you ask me, I would say five years ago, people didn't even know what sensors and sensing technique is.
But today, we are getting so many calls on asking for an automation system and the immediate question they ask is, do you have sensors, do you provide them, and things like that.
And people think that okay because, in the early days, imported systems were very expensive, and they may be our system is also very expensive.
Our system probably costs about 20 - 25% of the imported systems.
That awareness about the economics of that also has to come into the picture and we being a small company, we cannot disseminate this information largely in a local area, but we are using digital means to do that.
We do not have our sales and support force in our area of geography, but we work with partners and irrigation companies, and other irrigation service providers to spread this message as well as sell and deploy.
This will take a lot of time, but I think outside India, it is a very mature market and there is a lot of potentials.
But in India, I think it's still catching up.
It may take a few years for it to take off in a big way.
But I think any government intervention like a subsidy for these kinds of things might have a certain positive effect also, provided it is done well.
To sum up, Mr.
Vijayeendra told us that by using the solution, the farmers get benefitted directly as it helps them save money and earn more money that happens in two ways.
One is saving the labor, there are a lot of people who are not able to get any labor and they are deploying our automated system.
Secondly, with better handling of water and fertilizer, they certainly get better crop yield, which helps them get more money from the same amount of resources they are deploying.
These are the direct benefits but there are other ways in which the farmer get benefitted which he may not see today, there is water being saved, better utilization of water takes place, increase in water use efficiency takes place, which will help the society as a whole in reducing the water usage in farming which is up to 75 - 80% i.e.direct agriculture and if you take other food processing areas, it will probably hit close to 90%.
So, what is left for the remaining industrial and domestic purposes is 10% to 15%.
If you reduce water usage in agriculture, probably which is possible by deploying micro-irrigation as well as the use of such better methods of automating, sensing, and delivery.
You will save water and use less fertilizer.
So, that saves costs as well as use less fertilizer to grow the same amount of crop would help reduce the soil contamination, which has been a big issue in some places in India, due to which people have been getting contaminated water and that has led to diseases.
So, there are other societal benefits too.
Once this is done well, energy consumption also goes down.
Also, a lot of people still think that irrigating more water will lead to better crop yield, which is not true.
Researchers have shown that if you over irrigate, the yield will start reducing.
So, if you irrigate the right amount of water, you will save water and energy as well.
The energy consumption by the agriculture sector is close to 20% which certainly can be reduced with all such measures being taken.
These kinds of interventions will help the individual farmers as well as the society in utilizing the resources better.
article/why-esim-is-the-best-bet-for-connected-iot-devices
Why eSIM Technology is the Best Bet for Connected IoT Devices
Any latest development or a new origin in technology opens doors for new opportunities! With the advent of IoT and more and more IoT devices being developed, there was a dire need for smart cellular technology.
The problem of a smart cellular network was resolved with e-SIM.
We all are well aware of the SIM cards that are used by our devices like smartphones, tablets, etc.
to connect to any cellular network.
e-SIM or the embedded SIM, on the other hand, is different from the conventional SIM cards in a way that in smartphones, and other gadgets, there is an empty SIM card tray for the SIM to be inserted but eSIM is integrated into the phone/device/gadget in the form of a very small chip that is built right into the device.
are being used predominantly in smartphones, laptops, and IoT devices.
How is e-SIM Technology different from Traditional SIM cards?
, enabling users to easily switch carriers just by tweaking the settings on their device without changing the physical SIM card.
Additionally, the cost of using an eSIM is far cheaper compared to regular SIM cards.
Why eSIM technology is the future of IoT Devices?
, including in applications where a reliable signal is mandatory.
This is useful for IoT devices that move between locations and other IoT implementations.
so it ensures durability and the ability to withstand extreme conditions.
because of its durability, remote provisioning, seamless switching between networks, etc.
IoT Sectors where eSIM Technology is playing a Vital Role
Connectivity in vehicles is important for emergency calling systems, it supports a lot of applications like analytics-based solutions such as temperature controlling inside the vehicle, alternative route navigation, vehicle tracking assistance, speed, and fuel alerts, etc.
With e-SIM being used, users get the freedom of using voice and data services.
eSIMs have a unique identity for each vehicle which helps them to encrypt communication and ensure security in global connectivity for smart vehicle systems.
The agriculture sector faces challenges like scarcity of cultivable land, climate problems, scarcity of water, improper use of fertilizers, and uncertainty in availability of resources, etc.
These challenges are being overcome with the help of precision agriculture methodology which is based on real-time monitoring of crops and their predictive models through sensors.
The sensors help in determining the types of crops being cultivated in certain conditions.
The IoT devices which contain sensors can be connected with eSIMs that work on M2M mode to provide accurate data, thereby helping farmers in increasing the crop yield.
Smart metering is one of the major applications of IoT in energy management.
Smart meters can help reduce operational costs and automate service and network maintenance.
The data collected from these smart meters are periodically collected and sent to the IoT cloud platform using standardized protocols.
Remote reading, Retrofitting, automatic invoicing, and predictive maintenance are some of the major advantages of smart metering.
What’s Holding Back the eSIMTechnology?
Undoubtedly, there are immense benefits of eSIM technology for IoT devices or we can simply say, e-SIM is having a great impact on IoT but, it is important to acknowledge the factors that are holding the mass adoption of this technology.
There are a lot ofchallenges that need to be addressed for the widespread adoption of e-SIM technology in IoT.
Summing up, it can be said that while not all IoT devices in the market have supported eSIM to date, it is obvious that eSIM is the best bet for IoT and that more and more adoption for thetechnologyis going to take place soon.
tutorial/different-types-of-sensors-and-their-working
Different Types of Sensors and their Working
The era of automation has begun already.
Most of the things that we use now can be automated.
To design automated devices first we need to know about the sensors, these are the modules/devices which are helpful in making things done without human intervention.
Even the mobiles or smartphones which we daily use will have some sensors like hall sensor, proximity sensor, accelerometer, touch screen, microphone etc.
These sensor acts as eyes, ears, nose of any electrical equipment which senses the parameters in outside world and give readings to devices or Microcontroller.
What is a sensor?
is used in order to maintain sensor’s output voltage levels in the desired range with respect to the end device that we use.
, the output of the sensor may be amplified, filtered or modified to the desired output voltage.
For example, if we consider a microphone it detects the audio signal and converts to the output voltage (is in terms of millivolts) which becomes hard to drive an output circuit.
So, a signal conditioning unit (an amplifier) is used to increase the signal strength.
But the signal conditioning may not be necessary for all the sensors like photodiode, LDR etc.
Most of the sensors can’t work independently.
So, sufficient input voltage should be applied to it.
Various sensors have different operating ranges which should be considered while working with it else the sensor may get damaged permanently.
Types of Sensors:
etc.
We will discuss various sensors like:
Light Sensor
IR Sensor (IR Transmitter / IR LED)
Photodiode (IR Receiver)
Light Dependent Resistor
Temperature Sensor
Thermistor
Thermocouple
Pressure/Force/Weight Sensor
Strain Gauge (Pressure Sensor)
Load Cells (Weight Sensor)
Position Sensor
Potentiometer
Encoder
Hall Sensor (Detect Magnetic Field)
Flex Sensor
Sound Sensor
Microphone
Ultrasonic Sensor
Touch Sensor
PIR Sensor
Tilt Sensor
Accelerometer
Gas Sensor
We need to select the desired sensor based on our project or application.
As said earlier in order to make them work proper voltage should be applied based on their specifications.
and where it can be seen in our day to day life or its application.
IR LED:
Photo Diode (Light Sensor):
Using a photodiode we can build a basic automatic street lamp which glows when the sunlight intensity decreases.
But the photodiode works even if a small amount of light falls on it so, care should be taken.
LDR (Light Dependent Resistor):
One note should be considered with LDR is that it won’t respond if the light is not exactly focused on its surface.
Thermistor (Temperature Sensor):
Thermocouple (Temperature Sensor):
In its construction, two different metals are joined together to form a junction.
Its main principle is when the junction of two different metals are heated or exposed to high temperatures a potential across their terminals varies.
So, the varying potential can be further used to measure the amount of change in temperature.
Strain Gauge (Pressure/Force Sensor):
It works on the principle of resistance, we know that the resistance is directly proportional to the length of the wire and is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area (R=ρl/a).
The same principle can be used here to measure the load.
On a flexible board, a wire is arranged in a zig-zag manner as shown in the figure below.
So, when the pressure is applied to that particular board, it bends in a direction causing the change in overall length and cross-sectional area of the wire.
This leads to change in resistance of the wire.
The resistance thus obtained is very minute (few ohms) which can be determined with the help of the Wheatstone bridge.
The strain gauge is placed in one of the four arms in a bridge with the remaining values unchanged.
Therefore, when the pressure is applied to it as the resistance changes the current passing through the bridge varies and pressure can be calculated.
Strain gauges are majorly used to calculate the amount of pressure that an airplane wing can withstand and it is also used to measure the number of vehicles allowable on a particular road etc.
Load Cell (Weight Sensor):
Potentiometer:
It generally has various ranges of resistors connected to different poles of the switch.
A potentiometer can be either rotary or linear type.
In rotary type, a wiper is connected to a long shaft which can be rotated.
When the shaft has rotated the position of the wiper alters such that the resultant resistance varies causing the change in the output voltage.
Thus the output can be calibrated to detect the change its position.
Encoder:
To detect the change in the position an encoder can also be used.
It has a circular rotatable disk-like structure with specific openings in between such that when the IR rays or light rays pass through it only a few light rays get detected.
Further, these rays are encoded into a digital data (in terms of binary) which represents the specific position.
Hall Sensor:
and gives output in terms of voltage.
Care should be taken that the Hall sensor can detect only one pole of the magnet.
Flex Sensor:
Microphone (Sound Sensor):
using some microcontroller like Arduino.
Ultrasonic sensor:
We can make use of it avoid obstacles for the automated cars, moving robots etc.
The same principle will be used in the RADAR for detecting the intruder missiles and airplanes.
A mosquito can sense the ultrasonic sounds.
So, ultrasonic waves can be used as mosquito repellent.
Touch Sensor:
Let’s know about working of these sensors briefly.
has a resistive sheet at the base and a conductive sheet under the screen both of these are separated by an air gap with a small voltage applied to the sheets.
When we press or touch the screen the conductive sheet touches the resistive sheet at that point causing current flow at that particular point, the software senses the location and relevant action is performed.
works on the electrostatic charge that is available on our body.
The screen is already charged with s the all electric field.
When we touch the screen a close circuit forms due to electrostatic charge that flow through our body.
Further, software decides the location and the action to be performed.
We can observe that capacitive touch screen won’t work when wear hand gloves because there won’t be conduction between the finger(s) and the screen.
PIR sensor:
Accelerometer (Tilt Sensor):
It works based on the acceleration force caused due to the earth’s gravity.
The tiny internal parts of it are such sensitive that those will react to a small external change in position.
It has a piezoelectric crystal when tilted causes disturbance in the crystal and generates potential which determines the exact position with respect to X, Y and Z axis.
Gas sensor:
If no such device is installed in such areas it ultimately leads to an unbelievable disaster.
These gas sensors are classified into various types based on the type of gas that to be detected.
Let’s see how this sensor works.
Underneath a metal sheet there exists a sensing element which is connected to the terminals where a current is applied to it.
When the gas particles hit the sensing element, it leads to a chemical reaction such that the resistance of the elements varies and current through it also alters which finally can detect the gas.
So finally, we can conclude that sensors are not only used to make our work simple to measure the physical quantities, making the devices automated but also used to help living beings with disasters.
article/selecting-the-right-control-topology-for-smps-circuits
Selecting the Right Control Topology for SMPS Circuits ᾠVoltage Control Mode, Current Control Mode, and Ripple Control Mode
Different Types of Control Topology and Why Should you Implement Them in your Circuit?
Each has its own advantages and disadvantage depending upon the application that they are used in.
In the upcoming section,we have talked briefly about them.
Voltage Mode Control
that uses a triangular wave as its reference voltage.
As a result, the pulse of the PWM signal controls the output voltage.
This technique is often used because it has some benefits over other controllers.
It has a much better noise margin because we are looking at the signal that has a gain stage, and the error amplifier helps to minimize the signal and noise problems.
As it is running at a constant switching frequency, we can get a linear dynamic response.
The disadvantage of this circuit is that the time involved inside the loop have both inductor and capacitor.
In this circuit, the overall bandwidth of the circuit gets relatively low to stay away from the fact that those two components together can give us a 180-degree phase shift that can normally cause instability and that is the purpose of the competition circuit to keep that from happening.
Current Mode Control
, but the function of this oscillator is only to provide a time base.
All it does is to switch on/off the MOSFET at a regular rate with a constant switching frequency.
So first, it’s a constant switching frequency algorithm and second, it’s going to be pulse width modulated.
But the trigger that terminates each pulse is not directly from the output but is generated by the ramp of the current waveform in the output inductor and as you see,the signal is going to the PWM comparator is a current sensing signal and it’s the position between the power MOSFET and the input of the inductor.
Unlikethe voltage mode controller, in a current-mode controller, the inductor current in the circuit is measured and used instead of the triangular waveforms.
In many controllers, this process is done by using shunt resistors to measure the current.
This mode of control is fairly complex than a voltage mode control because in this mode you have to consider not only the current feedback loop but also the voltage feedback loop.
Although the circuit is quite complex, there are many advantages of this circuit over the voltage mode converter.
Theseinclude a higher stable feedback loop and a fast load transient response than that of voltage mode.
Hysteresis(ripple) Control
This controller was designed to meet the power demand of very fast switching circuits or circuits that can draw a very large amount of power in a very short period of time such as CPUs, Microcontrollers, FPGA, andGPU.
In this method, the output voltage is directly measured and compared with the help of an error amplifier.
If the voltage gets below a certain threshold, the output voltage is quickly adjusted by the comparator and the error amplifier.
In this circuit, we have a system and an output comparator that is comparing the output to the reference and it’s producing the difference.
So, the output is compared to the reference and fed to the hysteresis comparator that produces the output.
In our case, the output will never rest because the output will be always changing between levels once the output reaches the higher value of hysteresis, the control output will go down and the output will drop, and then it will kick again and will continue as an on-off operation.
The system here is very typical and thereare many different algorithms out there.
article/understanding-the-fundamentals-of-digital-audio
Understanding the Fundamentals of Digital Audio
On average, 2500 songs are uploaded every hour on Spotify, Apple Music, YouTube, and other streaming platforms which makes 60,000 songs a day and a million music tracks every week.
Each day, almost 3-4 hours are spent by average American users listening to their favorite songs.
But, have you ever wondered about the technology behind these songs and been amazed by hearing different instruments simultaneously?
Each instrument has a distinct sound and seems like coming from different locations, be it guitar, flute, drum, or anything where the sound flows through a couple of wires to your ears.
How is that possible?
In the real world, any sound that can be heard is the result of the vibration of our eardrums.
These sounds often travel through the air and cause the vibration in the air which reaches our eardrums and makes them move back & forth.
High-pitched sounds make the eardrums move back & forth more times per second than low-pitched sounds.
Basic Concepts of Digital Audio
This article is meant to acquaint you with the basic concepts of digital audio and the terminology related to this.
If any of the following makes sense to you, then it’s a good place to start with!
Did you want to know:
What does audio digitization mean?
What is the process of sampling and digitization of audio signals?
How are sampling rate, bit-depth, and resolution related to sampling and quantization?
What are Mono, Stereo and Surround sound in digital audio?
If yes, then let’s delve deep into the basic concepts of digital audio.
Amplitude & Frequency
Two of the most important aspects of analog audio are amplitude and frequency.
Let’s discuss the basic properties of sound waves and explore why different sounds vary from each other.
In audio, amplitude refers to the intensity of the contraction & expansion experienced by the medium (mostly air) the sound is traveling through.
It is measured in decibels (dB) and perceived by us as the loudness of the pitch.
Higher the amplitude, the louder the sound.
Frequency is referred to as the number of times vibration is experienced by the medium in one second.
It is measured in hertz (Hz) and is also referred to as the pitch.
Low-frequencysound travels farther than high-frequencysound.
For example, the frequency of drum beat is lower than the frequency of flute.
A human being can hear the frequency between 20 Hz- 20,000 Hz.
Frequencies beyond 20,000 Hz are called ultrasound and frequencies below 20 Hz are called infrasound which is not possible to be heard by humans.
What is “Digital Audio᾿
Digital audio is the phenomenon of record, process, store and transmits audio signals through a computer system over the internet.
Computers can only understand the signals that have been encoded to binary numbers.
But any audio content is inherently analog which our processors can’t interpret.
To represent the audio signals in a way that computers understand and process the data, the data needs to be converted in digital (binary) form.
The process requires various steps.
Usually, analog audio signals are found in the form of continuous sinusoidal waves whereas digital audio represents the discrete points that show the amplitude of the waveform.
Continuous signals must be converted to discrete signals as they provide finite and countable values after a certain time interval for computer use.
Sampling & Quantization or, Digitization of Audio signals
The process of ADC must accomplish two tasks i.e., sampling andquantization.
Sampling stands for the numberof samples (amplitude values) captured at regular time intervals.
The sampling rate is number of samples taken per second which is measured in Hertz (Hz).
If we record 48000 samples per second, the sampling rate would be 48000 Hz or 48 kHz.
Sampling rate (Fs)= 48 kHz
Sampling period (Ts)= 1/Fs
Sampling rate Vs Audio frequency
The smaller sampling interval allows a higher sampling rate which results in a higher audio frequency and larger file size and eventually better-quality sound.
So, clearly, the sampling rate should be high enough for lossless digitization.
, a continuous-time signal can be perfectly reconstructed from its digital samples when the sampling rate is more than double the highest audio frequency.
: Sampling rate should be at least more than double of Fmax.
Fs > 2 Fmax
Aliasing is a type of artifact or distortion that occurs when a signal is sampled at less than twice the highest audio frequency present in the signal.
Aliasing often results in the difference between the signals reconstructed from samples and the original continuous signal.
It depends on the frequency and sampling rate of the signal.
For instance, if a signal is sampled with a 38 kHz sampling rate, any frequency components above 19kHz create aliasing.
The process of aliasing can be avoided by using low-pass filters or anti-aliasing filters.
These filters are applied to the input signals before sampling to restrict the bandwidth of the signal.
Anti-aliasing filters remove the components above Nyquist frequency and allow to reconstruct the signals from digital samples without any additional distortion.
In a nutshell, bit-depth is the number of bits available for each sample.
Computers only understand and store the info in binary digits i.e., 1 or 0.
These binary digits are called bits.
The higher no.
of bits determines more information has been stored.
Hence, the higher the bit-depth, the more data will be captured to get a more precise result.
Bit-depth also determines the dynamic range of the signal.
When the sampled signals are quantized to the nearest value within a given range, these values within this range are determined by bit-depth.
These dynamic ranges are represented in decibels (dB).
In digital audio, 24-bit audio has the maximum dynamic range of 144dB, whereas 16-bit audio has a maximum of 96dB of dynamic range.
The bit-depth of 16-bit digital audio with a sampling rate of 44.1 kHz is widely used for consumer audio, whereas 24-bit audio with a sampling rate of 48 kHz is used for professional audio for content recording, mixing, storing and editing.
Quantization of Audio Signals
It is the process of mapping analog audio signals with infinite values from a large dataset to digital audio signals with finite and countable values in smaller data set during analog-to-digital conversion (ADC).
Bit-depth plays an important role in determining the accuracy and quality of the quantized value.
If an audio signal uses 16-bit then the maximum numberof amplitude values represented are 2^16= 65,536 values.
Mono, Stereo and Surround Sound in Digital Audio
(monophonic) sound is the system where all the sounds are combined and passed through a single channel.
It uses only one channel while converting the signal into sound.
Even if there are multiple speakers and sound is coming through different speakers, it gives an effect of sound coming from one speaker or single source.
(stereophonic) sound isthe contrary of mono sound.
It uses two independent channels (left & right) that give an effect of sounds coming from different directions depending on the speaker you send the signal to.
It provides an illusional multi-dimensional audio feel to the listeners and uniform coverage to both left & right channels.
Stereo sound has started replacing the mono sound due to better audio quality and more channels.
enriches the fidelity of audio reproduction for listeners by using multiple channels.
It makes audiences experience the sound coming from 3 or more directions.
Apart from left, right, and center, surround sounds can be heard from front and back that provides the sensation of sound coming from all directions to the listeners.
It is widely used in audio systems like home theater designed by Dolby & DTS available in 5.1 & 7.1 channels.
Conclusion
, reliability, more storage space, wireless connectivity, portability, and a truly immersive experience to the users.
Various new technologies are being introduced into it like 3D audio effects, surround sound, Dolby sound like Dolby Atmos, Dolby Digital, DTS: Virtual X to give a surreal experience to the listeners.
Disruptive technologies like Artificial intelligence and machine learning are providing a more personalized experience to the users.
The possibilities are endless!
interview/rahul-gundala-co-founder-of-sensegrass-on-how-their-data-driven-precision-farming-can-help-to-increase-crop-yield
Rahul Gundala, Co-Founder and CTO of SenseGrass on how their Data-driven Precision Farming can Help to Increase Crop Yield
by adopting modern technologies tocollect vital data points from the field and analyze them to curate, predict and prescribe the best farming practice.
One such company, which is working towards Precision farming solution is Sensegrass.
Curious to know more about Sensegrass and its products, we approached Mr.
Rahul Gundala, who is the co-founder and CTO of Sensegrass.
Read on to know all details he shared about the company, their present, and upcoming projects.
It all started when me and my friend, Lalit was part of a social impact initiative for climate change at the World Economic Forum.
Looking at large-scale data, and coming from a farming background, we realized that simple solutions using AI technology can solve large-scale problems in the farming industry.
We understood the practical challenges farmers face on the ground and built our solutions as co-creation with lots of research with customers.With Lalit’s background in plant sciences and mine in technology, we realized the potential of how we could solve a few of the high-impact problems by improving farming techniques.
Today, as part of our product line, we offer a soil intelligence platform for farmers that helps understand crop conditions, soil health, environmental changes and we also give actionable insights on precision farming to improve crop yield and reduce chemicals usage.
We also give actionable insights to farmers on how they can improve their profit, while using fewer amount of resources, like fertilizers, pesticides.
We do this using a lot of data points across various channels.
We give them precision agriculture information like you have to focus on one specific area for those fertilizers and then while reducing the fertilizer usage; we also improve the yield output.
We understand that every crop requires precise attention and we deliver those actionable insights to farmers.
This is done with the help of our SaaS application, which is a web and mobile application.
Apart from that, we have our patented IoT soil sensor probes that give 14 different soil parameters including NPK at 3 different depth levels in real-time.
During the early days of our journey, we focused on small and mid-size farmers but realized that ROI on Capex is not feasible.
Later, we started working on innovating business model to make our solutions almost free for farmers.
We primarily sell our solution to large farm corporates, FMCG brands, retail chains, and plant science companies where they have contract farmers from whom they procure produce or have a need to monitor the data to improve their product.
Our end-user is a farmer and the customer is agro-corporates where both have a win-win model where agro companies can make their products and services more efficient using the data that we generate through the platform, and the farmer can use the product to increase their crop yield.
We source our data from four channels viz.
soil parameter from our IoT soil probe, GIS satellite image data (public & private), environmental data (weather and climate), historic soil health card data + farm activity logs.
In each of these channels, we have set frequency intervals depending on the crop type.
Soil Probe is our primary channel which collects 14 different soil parameters across various depth levels, which is including the NPK sensor; it's a patented soil sensor with an instance.
We use optical spectroscopy, which has an edge over the rest of the competition.
Apart from that, we also source information from public and private satellite sources, satellite images, and then we process using GIS engines.
We do web scraping from public and publicly available soil health information to us historic soil and one of the most important being environmental information data source.
On average, we do around 1000 data points per crop.
We primarily collect NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus, sodium), and we also collect soil temperature, soil moisture, then the lux value from the chlorophyll point of view.
We have various other parameters like pH values and oil components and nutritional values as well.
Our whole probe or the product itself is modular and depending on the customer requirements, we can quickly modify or interchange based on the network technology available at that particular location.
Only the network unit can be swapped with the rest of the probe.
As of now, we offer LoRa and we have a 5G-enabled version as well, which is backward compatible up to 2G.
We are primarily working in Europe and the US.
Coming to the number of sensors deployed per field, it depends on the land itself.
If it's even landform, then one sensor supports up to 10 acres, we can average out the values up to 10 acres.
It also depends on what crop you're growing.
If it's a high cash crop, we recommend more sensors within a small plot area.
We have enabled this with a solar-powered system but in case there is no sunlight, it can last up to two days.
Sensegrass, at its core, is an AI and Data Science company.
We compute thousands of data points from various channels to address various micro-services we offer.
As a simple use-case of one of our micro-service, Plant card is an AI model that gives the ideal soil condition for maximum yield output.
For example, if it's corn, what needs to be the nitrogen value of that particular geography of the plant, and what needs to be the value of nitrogen at that particular geography.
This has been computed with lots of other conditions like it considers soil replenishment; it considers environmental changes, macro trends, and real-time soil condition.
It gives insights to farmers on what needs to be maintained to get maximum yield output while also taking care of the long-term vision of the plot area.
Wherein a conventional agronomist gives suggestions and actionable insights to farmers, what we do is a step ahead.
The AI model that we created recognizes various patterns that are going into the crop sector.
For example, with a similar environmental condition that is expected in the next week, we can understand what kind of impact it would have on the next crop cycle.
This kind of observation and pattern recognition is only possible through the machine.
Manually, it's tough to have that huge macro view of the entire data.
That's the kind of AI power that we use at Sensegrass.
We were the first company in the market that used optical spectroscopy to develop this technology.
When we incepted, we were a pure hardware company.
Our entry was through our hardware product, Soil Probe.
Later on, we pivoted to being SaaS first platform.
When we started, we faced problems like understanding how to cut down the cost to make it more effective to midsize farmers and how to ensure that these are the standard protocols that we need to follow.
We also faced a lot of other production-level challenges where the prototype was quickly made because we already come from a technology background but when we made the transition to make it a production-level product, there are a lot of things that we learned on the way.
Our primary source has been Taiwan and China but right now, we are planning to get this all done in-house.
We do it on a request basis, we have a very limited stock as of date, but we also have supply chain partners who we are working with.
I would bet my money more on the rover part because drones are a capital-intensive thing and generations of evolution will bring that down.
But rover becomes interesting, in one of our product roadmaps, we're creating a modular drone, which can be used for multiple purposes, right from doing farm activities like spraying, fertilizing, or even pest detection, etc.
These kinds of activities can be moved around and one very strong motivation for us to work on the rover is that the same soil probe can be used across the field.
We have pit stops across the plot area, and the rover will collect these data at various pit stops, and then we get back the information.
The basic framework is ready and we are working on making it all-terrain.
That's been the kind of side project for us; our primary focus has been on making our AI model more efficient and getting more data.
But that's something that we could get out in the market in the next year.
We started empathizing with the customer as we come personally from a farming background, so we understood that this is a capital-intensive business for farmers.
They don't see our ROI from such capital intensive point of view.
That’s when we came with bundled packages, where the capex cost of the sensors is what we divide across the subscription.
That's how it becomes more affordable.
It's a win-win situation on both ends for the company as well because later after a year, we start getting returns and that's a recurring return, even the investors and the whole ecosystem is happy about that.
That's the kind of innovation that we have done, but we are at a very early stage to fine-tune our bundle packages, we just got started with that kind of model.
As of date, we have been primarily a licensed-based large-scale company, we deal with agro corporates; we have been doing our annual licenses and large-scale deals with companies.
That’s one important thing that the rest of the trend will follow, it’s the next big wave! The obvious challenge is to cater to the food needs of a huge population that is constantly growing.
Becoming optimized or efficient in farming is the next obvious challenge that a lot of technology companies need to address.
We are planning to create an operating system for farmers, so that's our vision for the next two to three years.
We would want to be the core platform on top of which various additional extensions or modules can work.
We would be the data net or the grid of data, and a lot of other players can work on top of this data to give services.
articles/what-is-beyond-lithium-ion-batteries-for-electric-vehicles-scalable-and-potential-alternatives-for-clean-energy
What is Beyond Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles ᾠScalable and Potential Alternatives for Clean Energy
With the ever-increasing consumption of fossil fuels, the governments of various countries are taking steps towards the electrification of vehicles.
Last year, the Government of the UK said that it would ban the sales of new cars and vans powered by diesel and petrol by 2030.
Despite efforts being made for the decisive shift away from the internal combustion engine what could be the reason that we are not seeing many electric cars hitting the roads? Well, one of the major reasons is the hefty price of current batteries being used in EVs.
Bloomberg New Energy Finance states that batteries add 30% to the total cost of the EV.
control more than 90% of the global grid battery storage market.
It is very much the winning clean technology.
These are the only types of batteries that pack powerful energy storage in a compact and lightweight design.
more efficient.
Israeli company,StoreDot is aiming to deliver 100 miles of charge to a car battery in five minutes in 2025.
Likewise, many other companies are working on improving the battery efficiency providingextreme fast-charging and delivering long miles of charge.
which is not only expensive but adds to the environmental hazards too.
Companies around the globe are working towards developing new technologies and smart alternatives to Li-ion batteries.
that don't use cobalt and aim to achieve $100 per kWh (wholesale).
Sounds interesting, right?
of the company shared her views on the battery technology developments for electric vehicles and more.
Talking to her, we got to know more about the problems of using Li-ion batteries in EVs, other types of batteries being manufactured for EVs and how far would the shift from Li-ion batteries to other batteries prove beneficial.
Here is what she said:
Possible Alternatives of Lithium-ion Batteries for Electrical Vehicles
These batteries have a much higher energy density in comparison to Li-ion batteries.
Another great advantage of Li-S batteries is the affordability owing to sulfur being a more abundant material than cobalt.
The Li-S battery system has a redox reaction-based storage mechanism, which delivers higher energy density because of the formation of Li2S when sulfur combines with lithium.
Sulfur is sourced from industrial waste and cardanol is sourced from bio-renewable feed-stock that is easily available, non-toxic, and environmentally friendly.
announced the development of a technology of Lithium-Sulfur (Li-S) batteries.
It is said that the research will aid the production of cost-effective, compact, energy-efficient, safe, and environment-friendly Li-sulfur batteries, offering a viable alternative to Lithium-ion batteries used at present.
, incorporating the usage of by-products from the petroleum industry (Sulfur), agro-waste elements, and copolymers such as cardanol (a by-product of cashew nut processing) and eugenol (clove oil) as cathodic materials.
From gadgets to drones, electric vehicles (EV), and other products, the Li-S battery has the potential to aid multi-billion dollar industries.
Also, a few months back, researchers at Monash University in Australia developed a very high-performance and energy-efficient lithium-sulfur (Li-S) battery with a potential electric vehicle (EV) range of 1000 KM.
The zinc-ion batteries do not require formation cycling at the end of life meaning the production of zinc-ion batteries can be rapidly and inexpensively scaled-up.
and need not be electrically charged.
Besides, there is no mechanical electric charging or replacement required for Aluminium batteries
They hold a limited amount of charge and can deliver it fast.
This makes them the perfect complement to mass-storage batteries.
compared to several hours for a standard electric car battery.
Hydrogen fuel cells, Redox flow batteries, Aluminum-graphite batteries, Bioelectrochemical batteries, and Thin-film batteries are other smart alternatives of lithium-ion batteries being worked upon.
Powered roads and solar panels too can be mentioned in the list of smart alternatives to lithium-ion batteries.
There were many successful attempts made to replace graphite with silicon in lithium-ion batteries until scientists at Sila Nanotechnologies solved the issue with a nanocomposite of silicon and other materials.
There are other problems like (environmental consequences of using lithium, its high cost, and less availability) that some nanomaterials scientists are working on.
This is what they call, “Beyond lithium-ionᾠbatteries and various ways are being explored to replace lithium with materials like sodium, potassium, magnesium, and aluminum.
article/understanding-blind-buried-and-through-hole-vias-in-pcb
Understanding Blind, Buried, and Through-hole vias in PCB
as you can see in the above image.
if you are new to PCB making industry.
What is a Via?
then this via occupy more space and it affects the overall density of the board to solve this problem.
PCB design-engineers use a blind via or a buried via instead.
Inthis section, we will talk about all that in detail.
are cleverly laminatedvias they can be blind and buried vias.
These types of vias connect multiple layers on a PCB that is why it is named stacked via.
Generally, in PCB, they are connected in such a manner that they appear to be looking in a sideways direction.
This via looks like vias are on top of each other.
How Do They Make Such Vias?
When creating blind and buried vias, it is important to be aware of the drill depth.
Depending on how deep the hole is, it can have degenerative effects on the board.
If the drilled hole goes too deep then it can cause signal distortion, and it can affect other high-speed signals.
And if the hole is too shallow then the connection could break and the PCB may or may not work properly.
While designing your board,you need to be aware of manufacturing limitationsand guidelines.
It’s highly recommended to consult your PCB manufacturer to get advice on the best approach to design your board.
In case of micro via, makesure you give your manufacturer, specific instructions to fill the vias with thermal/electrical epoxy and plate copper over it.
This not only gives your board a proper finish, but it also protects the vias from environmental hazards.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Using such blind vias, buried vias in any PCB design has its own advantages and disadvantages.
The advantage is that this technology offers a quick and easy design method to meet the component density requirements on a typical design without increasing the layer count or board size.
The disadvantage of this technology is that due to the additional operations in the manufacturing process, the cost of the board goes significantly high.
That's all about blind and buried vias in a PCB.I hope you liked the article and learned something new.
Ifyou have any questions regarding the article, please comment below.
article/how-can-teardrops-helps-in-improving-quality-and-stability-in-pcb-design
How can Teardrops help in Improving Quality and Stability of your PCB Design
Teardrops are typically drop-shaped vias or junctions that improve the stability of the PCB by providing some margin of redundancy for the via.
As you can see in the above image, a teardrop is some extra coper at the junction of the pad and trace.
It's placed exactly where the trace transitions between thick and thin.
If you are doing micro design for the first time, in the PCB industry, it’s a common practice to add teardrops to add some extra redundancy on a circuit board.
We will also know how it's manufactured, and the problems that come along with it.
Finally, we will show you how you resolve those problems by using some easily accessible tools that are available in the PCB design software.
So without further ado, let’s get right into it.
if you are new to PCB design.
What is a Teardrop in PCB?
When I heard the term teardrop the first time.
My initial reaction was teardrops? IN PCB? What is that? My co-worker told me to do a Google search and learn about it.
At that time there was not much content available on the internet so I had to look quite a bit before I understood what teardrops mean.
The waged shape you see on the right-hand side of the image somewhat resembles a teardrop, hence a teardrop via, but in the grand scheme of things, why do we need such a teardrop? If you have this question in mind, follow along and you will have the answer.
As you can see in the above image, there is a huge mistake by the manufacturer, because while manufacturing the total yield, there will surely be mistakes.
Sometimes the drill gets wobbly, sometimes there can be issues with the lamination process, and more.
Though manufacturers try to do their best, mistakes often happen and that can reduce the overall product quality.
And if a mistake happens, you could end up with a hole created outside the pad or via.
Adding teardrops along the design process is a method to safeguard against drill breakouts because it marginally increases the amount of copper outside the pad.
If the drill hole is on the opposite side of the trace, it does not matter much because the connection on the track is still good but if the drill is in the junction in between the trace and the pad, it can cause a serious problem in the long run.
So, the next question would be, how thick or thin should the teardrop be?If you check out your manufacturer’s guidelines, you can find it there but as a general rule of thumb we use:
Apex Radius Factor = ((Diameter of the PAD - Diameter of the Hole)/1.8)
While doing a large PCB design, this gives us a general idea of how the teardrop setting will be.
Adding Teardrops in Your Design
Different manufacturers have their different testing and checking processes, you always need to follow your manufactures guidelines before ordering your PCBs.
Often, they will add teardrops as required but it’s a good practice to add your own teardrops in case, the manufacturing house does not provide such advanced features.
You need to keep in mind that a trace width of more than 0.5 mm does not require teardrops.
As you can see in the above example, we are using Eagle PCB designing software to design our PCB, so the options and settings we are using are only applicable to Eagle PCB.
icon, then search for teardrops, once located you need to double click on it to open it.
You just need to put in the radius of the teardrop and click OK.
You can calculate the radius of the teardrop by using the formula shown above.
Once the teardrops are added, do a proper DRC and ERC check to make sure that no teardrop vias aretouching together.
So that’s it for this tutorial.
I hope you liked the article and learned something new.
If you have any questions regarding the article, please do comment below.
article/how-bionics-are-redefining-the-future-of-prosthetics
How Bionics are Redefining the Future of Prosthetics
that help people with spinal cord injuries walk, and much more.
With artificial limbs, they can perform their day-to-day task with ease and are not dependent on anybody.
, there is a vast advancement that has taken place in the field of bionics.
Some of you might question, how far we have come today in the field of bionics and what all technological advancements have taken place.Here, we’ll try answering the same with some facts on recent advancements, companies that are working on creating the bionics, and what we can expect in the future.
Bionics Market Size & Recent Advancements
technology are moving at an alarming rate and there is a lot of research going on in making bionics more advanced.
Doctors, engineers, and students around the globe are striving to design more effective artificial limbs in the quest to help amputees get the sensation of touch using tactile feedback sensors and perform various tasks with ease.
for individual finger control and functional grips.
Advanced Bionics, Mobiusbionics, Edwards Lifesciences, Ekso Bionics, LifeNet Health, Retina Implant, Orthofix International, William Demant, SECOND SIGHT are some of the major key players in the medical bionics that have made a mark with their innovative technologies.
with a number of sensors picks up the muscle movements.
This is a lightweight and affordable myoelectric prosthesis that enables users to grab, pinch, high-five, fist bump, and thumbs-up.This full prosthesis is robust, and the innovative socket that’s comfortable, easily adjustable, and breathable.
With features like grip patterns and control system, thumb rotation, proportional speed control, auto-grip, and more; this bionic arm is a true bliss for users as it enables them to perform various functions with ease.
is the AI-powered prosthetic bionic leg that allows users to move around naturally, climb stairs, stand up from the chair, and much more.
This is a powered prosthetic that is lighter yet stronger than the biological leg.
It is still in the development stages but is surely promising.
used for action sports and other similar activities.
can perform various controlling actions.
Machine learning allows the hand to mimic the user's movements.
There are pressure sensors that can relay touch sensations.
Not just that, a compliant four-bar linkage mechanism makes the fingers of this prosthetic hand more impact resistant.
Talking about neural bionic, years back, doctors implanted a chip in Mr.
Ian Burkhart’s brain who met with an accident and broke his neck on the sandy floor, permanently losing the feeling in his hands and legs.
Researchers connected a sleeve of electrodes to his arm that relayed electronic signals from a computer connected to a chip implanted in his brain thereby controlling the hand movement.
The chip helped him regain the sensation in his arm.
is working on neural implants that will enable users to control a computer or mobile device from their brain.
is a technology that attaches to the muscles in the body and forms a bond.
It lets the person control the bionic limb easily.
, we got some insight on what is the present and future scenario of bionics and recent advancements that have taken place.
We also asked him about their ‘Made-in-Indiaᾠbionic arm, KalArm.
Here is what he said:
What will be the future of Bionic Prosthetic?
If you are a gaming freak, you surely are aware of the Cyberpunk 2077 game released in December 2020.
Set in the near future where technology has advanced to a point when people can modify their bodies in different ways; it’s a fantastic game that gives us a glimpse of what the future of bionics holds.
Do you think Cyberpunk 2077 will be the future of bionics? Wrapping it up, I would say bionics is definitely redefining the future of prosthetics.
Advances in bionics can enable users to integrate extra-skeletononto their bodies.
Reaching the next milestone, integrating systems with the body to improve sensory feedback will require the expertise of electrical engineers.
Till we see more, we can run our imaginations a little bit wild!
article/key-differences-between-rs-485-and-rs-232-serial-protocols
Key Differences between RS-485 and RS-232 Serial Protocols
, flex I2C, and many others, and yet still remain relevant and have their place in today’s era.
Aged they are, dead they are not.
, you can also check them out if interested.
Let’s begin.
Basics of RS-232 Protocol
in detail, lets quickly get over it again in brief.
was developed to bring about compatible connectivity between different vendors of small serial data communication interfaces.
It defines the names and electrical characteristics of signals in the interfaces as well as the mechanical attributes of the interfaces used.
The links used in RS-232 are classified as unbalanced or single-ended lines.
This means the transmission lines are referenced to a common ground, or even more simply put, one wire is used for transmitting data and the ground serves as a second wire.
Single-ended lines can quickly corrupt the data they carry when used over very long distances.
The corruption can be caused by ground shifts, ground loops, and even the different ground potentials between the sender and receiver.
In terms of electrical characteristics of the transmitted signals, logic level 0 is defined as equal to or more positive than +3V, and logic level 1 is defined as equal to or more negative than -3V.
The signals use negative logic.
The protocols also state that the input signals between -3V and +3V are undefined.
0 (Space)
1 (Mark)
Undefined
The "Asynchronous"term tells us that no common clock is used for synchronizing the transmitter and the receiver.
They run on their own clock.
A synchronized data transfer between the two occurs because data is transferred in theform ofa known protocol data format.
Basics of RS-485 Protocols
The 2-wire transmission lines, A and B, which link devices are balanced lines.Balanced in a sense thatwhen A-line carries a voltage, B line carries the complement of the voltage or vice versa.
This balancing is technically called Balanced Differential signaling and it provides common-mode noise cancellation.
So, expect RS-485 to have a higher noise immunity.
When no data is being transferred, the two transmission lines balance-out, or their voltages cancel each other out.
When there is data on one of the lines, an electrical imbalance is created and this is picked up and amplified by the receiver.
The RS-485 specifies that the cables used as transmission links should be a twisted-pair cable and the data format used is the same as one of RS-232.
,you can check out the article.
Difference between RS232 and RS485 Communication Protocols
It is used for shorter distance and a lesser data rate
It is used for longer distance with a higher data rate
It lowers the noise immunity
It offers higher noise immunity
It uses single-ended lines or unbalanced signaling
It uses a balanced differential signaling technique
RS-232 is used for connecting only two devices.
RS-485 is designed for multi-point systems
This explains why RS-232 is used for connections within a short-distance range and RS-485 is used for longer distances with higher data rate requirements.
Electrical Signaling Techniques is an important parameter that determines the noise immunity of the two protocols.
In RS-232, single-ended lines or unbalanced signaling is used and this lowers the noise immunity of the standard against interferences such as ground loops.
Higher noise immunity is offered by RS-485, as it uses a balanced differential signaling technique that awards the user with common-mode noise cancellation.
Ideally, the more devices we can connect, the better.
RS-485 is designed for multi-point systems, where multiple drivers and receivers are connected and RS-232, on the other hand, is used for connecting only two devices.
The trade-off of connecting multiple devices is increased network complexity.
RS-232 is easier to implement as there is a lesser number of receivers and drivers to handle.
It really is a simple and cheap solution.
The RS-485 receiver determines the logic level of the data received by comparing the signal levels of transmission lines A and B.
Logic 1 state occurs when line A is at least 200mV more positive than line B and Logic 0 state occurs when line be is at least 200mV more than Line A.
The standard declares voltage differences less than 200mV as undefined.
Buckle-up the voltage difference to a minimum of 200mV if you want data to be detected in RS-485 topology.
In RS-232, no two-wire comparisons are made since data is carried in only one wire and the other wire is a ground reference.
Here, Logic 0 means a voltage of more than+3V, and Logic 1 means a voltage of more than -3V.
Any voltage level between the two thresholds is undefined.
Summary of RS232 vs RS485
Let’s say, Mr.
X wants to connect a modem to his PC and the distance between the two devices is a little over 15 feet.
Mr.
X does not like complex things and he prefers a cheaper solution.
Between RS-232 and RS-485 protocols, which one should Mr.
X use? RS-232, of course!
If applications require connecting multiple systems, higher data rates, more noise immunity, and the distance is long, then RS-485 is a more suitable candidate.
The same way “the customer is kingᾠin the business world, the application is king when choosing which protocol to use.
article/all-you-need-to-know-about-wi-fi-halow-and-how-it-can-support-iot-ecosystem
All You Need to know about Wi-Fi HaLow and How it can Support the IoT Ecosystem
), a Wi-Fi standard specifically created to efficiently meet the challenging requirements of IoT.
What is Wi-Fi HaLow and Why it’s beneficial to IoT?
which is also a very promising wireless protocol, popularly used in long-range IoT devices.
The table given below shows the difference between normal Wi-Fi and Wi-Fi HaLow for comparison.
These features satisfy the key requirements needed for the success of IoT connectivity and applications.
RAW divides the sensor nodes into groups, and it assigns each group time intervals called RAW slots.
During a RAW slot, a group is awake and has a data transmission opportunity.
When the assigned RAW slot ends, the sensor nodes go to sleep and save energy.
Take, for example, smart cities, where there are hundreds of sensors, including those to facilitate smart parking, ease traffic congestion, measure electromagnetic field levels, and waste management.
Not properly managing the energy resource in this big family of sensors could lead to the failure of IoT’s mission of turning dumb cities into smart ones that improve the quality of lives of their habitats.
than other IoT technologies.
This extends connectivity to even hard-to-reach places like garages, basements, and large outdoor areas.
, meaning there is no need for proprietary switches or hubs.
This native IP support feature makes the system easy to expand and less complex.
All these advantages are too great to ignore.
Challenges Faced by Wi-Fi HaLow
There are different sub 1 GHz ISM bands available for the 802.11ah standard in different countries.
The US proposes support to channels with bandwidths of 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 MHz in the sub 1 GHz spectrum.
This, however, is not ideal for other countries that have a small number of channels supported at 1 MHz and others like China, where most of the sub 1 frequencies are already being used for TV broadcasting.
The variation in frequencies amongst countries makes it difficult to produce Wi-Fi HaLow products that work universally.
902 - 928 MHz
1, 2,4,8, 16 MHz
917.1 - 923.3 MHz
1,2,4 MHz
863 - 868 MHZ
1,2 MHz
755 ᾠ787 MHZ
1,2,4,8 MHz
920 ᾠ925 MHz
1 MHz
Applications of Wi-Fi HaLow
Chips and systems using the .11ah standard are expected to integrate the market in 2021.
Quite a number of the world’s largest companies have been working on this technology, including, Qualcomm, Intel, Mediatek, Broadcom, LG, ZTE, and Samsung.
Since the standard offers a large coverage, it is expected to be used in rural communication.
To bring life to services such as E-Health and E-Learning in rural areas.
This all falls under the intent of “connecting the unconnectedᾬ and pushing technology to even the outskirts of urban areas so that it can benefit all of humanity.
Another use case is sensor networks, mainly because the standard allows more sensors to be connected per access point and it has an increased penetration through walls and obstructions.
are broad because it combines security, scalability, and energy efficiency to address many IoT applications in multiple industries.
Summary
Wi-Fi HaLow (pronounced Hey-Low), is basically an optimized form of Wi-Fi for IoT applications.
It offers a low-power consumption, a wide-coverage, and an increased number of nodes per access point.
In this section, we compared its features with those of traditional Wi-Fi, its design challenges, use cases and discussed why it is beneficial to the IoT community.
Have any questions related to the topic? Feel free to leave a comment below.
interview/wienke-giezeman-ceo-and-co-founder-of-the-things-network-shares-his-vision-on-building-a-global-lorawan-iot-network
Wienke Giezeman, CEO and Co-Founder of The Things Network shares his vision on building a global LoRaWAN IoT Network
‘Things Conferenceᾠis a five-day global event that takes place every year.
This year (2021), the event took place virtually because of the COVID-19 Pandemic situation.
Numerous sessions with great speakers and companies showing off their products and services made the event successful and intriguing.
It has got a great response!
, to hear about all the exciting announcements made in the event.
We asked him about the Things Network and its impact on the LoRaWAN community, how the Things Network has evolved over the years, what are its future plans, and much more.
You can check the video below for his answers or scroll down for the summary.
by building a new network management software.
Our vision is to bring to gather, a lot of different partners, ecosystem players, developers, and companies to be focusing on what they're good at and making that work together with open standards and being interoperable; in that way delivering the end-user complete solutions or allowing developers to build complete solutions.
Our mantra from the start was let's build the Things together! At Things Network, we have a large community and the Things conferences give you all our open source and open tools online to build the applications.
Taking that further, if you want to scale that or you want to have more professional services, you can go to the Things Industries.
The Things Stack is a piece of software that runs and operates on a network.
It manages the gateways, manages the security, and manages the devices.
It's at the core of what we do.
We launched a new product, where we started by having global roaming for LoRaWAN by design, and you would share your gateway.
And now it's also possible to share an entire network that runs on the Things Stack, which is network management, a piece of software.
The Things Stack is open source.
There is also an enterprise version for companies and it connects to what we call the packet broker, which is the central roaming and peering LoRaWAN exchange that makes sure that you can collaborate and connect your networks all across the world.
All in all, we route more than 600 messages per second, which is an immense amount, it goes into the 10s of billions per year, and is growing at 100% base every half year.
The traction is enormous.
What is interesting about the data point of these messages per second is that these are actual devices sending some data to the cloud.
This is when it all comes together.
This is a very interesting market area, and this gives us a lot of motivation to keep doing what we're doing.
Europe and the US have the biggest activity, apart from that we also have a lot of activity in Tokyo in Australia.
In Europe, we operate the largest network in the UK and Germany.
What's interesting is that we share in our opening keynote is that LoRaWAN is active in a lot of different geographies, in a lot of different industry segments, and because of this distribution, it's actually showing that it’s able to handle the immense fragmentation and diversity that the IoT market brings and that the spread is very diverse.
that more and more players can deliver these high-quality products.
During our conference, we've announced a few things to help companies innovate faster and skill faster.
For instance, we have launched a device for boilerplate, which gives you everything you need from a LoRaWAN device, and then you can extend it with your own sensors in your own hardware application.
Everything has received massive interest from the market because it also has some very unique features like firmware updates, secure provisioning, etc.
We also help companies scale faster.
We have launched a service, which is a global installation service together with a partner that's capable of installing many gateway and sensor sites around the world.
Every year, we focus on what’s holding back the next growth phase and how can we implement that.
There's quite an uptake in the agriculture segment.
We see a lot of applications going on, we have customers that track cows, we have customers that measure the moisture of soil and plan irrigation, etc.
There are a lot of activities taking place in these segments and then, of course, you see that in the smart building market, buildings are retrofitted with all kinds of sensor applications.
There is new network management software at Things Stack where it is easy for you to manage LoRaWAN applications, networking, and security.
Next is the packet broker, which allows multiple networks to connect and pair and if you like, you can also implement a business model on top of that.
Third, we announced the generic note, which is an IoT boilerplate for LoRaWAN devices and it comes with all the features you need from a LoRaWAN device.
Mr.
Wienke Giezeman also told us about more updates coming up online and that the users can check out the opening keynote.
He also told us that there will be six more conferences coming up this year, you can stay tuned in and join!
article/understanding-the-difference-between-bjt-and-mosfet-and-how-to-select-the-right-one-for-your-designs
Understanding the Difference Between BJT and MOSFET and How to Select the Right One for Your Designs
And when I say vacuum tubes, the first thing that comes to the mind is a big bulky device, inside which the vacuum tubes reside.
They requirea high operating voltage (they eat a lot!) so unfortunately for them, society rendered them inefficient employees and they got fired.
Transistors are the new employees, and well, so far so good! The burning question then is, between BJT and MOSFET, who should win the employee of the year award?
, you can also check that out if you want to learn more about it.
Let’s welcome our first candidate ᾠThe BJT
which is moderately doped.
Depending on the biasing of these two junctions, the BJT can operate in different modes.
Cut-off (used for switching)
Reverse-biased
Reverse-biased
Active (used for amplification)
Forward-biased
Reverse-biased
Reverse-active
Reverse-biased
Forward-Biased
Saturation (used for switching)
Forward-biased
Forward-biased
BJT, why should you be named the better transistor?
? “Well, the answer is simple.
To work as an open switch, a BJT operates in cut-off mode, here there is zero collector current, meaning ideally zero power is consumed by the BJT.
On the other hand, to work as a closed switch, a BJT works in saturation mode, there are a high collector current and zero collector voltage, meaning ideally there is zero power consumed by the BJT.
᾿ Highlight the term, low-current.
BJTs are high-voltage, low-current devices.
This means, under normal operating conditions, a BJT can handle tens of amps while withstanding up to one thousand volts and more.
Thank you candidate one.
Now, let’s move on to the second candidate - MOSFET
It may sound like combining 5 words just to name a single device is a little too extra, but the name makes perfect sense as it describes both the structure and the working of the device.
This is why the name has metal oxide in it.
ᾠWhen there is a voltage applied across the gate-source, an electric field is established, which controls the conducting path between the source and the drain.
This is why a MOSFET is known as a type of F.E.T
MOSFET, why should you be named the better transistor?
Which transistor is used in a CPU? FinFETs, which are a type of MOSFET transistors.
Parallel operation is a design technique that comes in handy when one wants to increase the power handling capacity in the circuit.
It is just connecting transistors in parallel when the current in the circuit is more than what can be handled by one transistor.
So, fortunately for MOSFETs, since they are voltage-controlled devices, they become easier to drive.
BJTs on the other hand, are current-controlled devices so, things are a bit complicated for them.
Thank you candidate two.
A Quick Comparison of BJTvs MOSFET
It is bipolar
It is unipolar
It is a high-voltage, low- current device
It is a low-voltage, high-current device
Lower switching speed
High switching speed/frequency
Hard to drive
Easy to drive
Cheaper
More expensive
Robust
Easily damaged by static electricity
Easy to bias
Difficult to bias
Has a secondary breaking issue
No secondary breaking issue
Negative temperature coefficient
Positive temperature coefficient
Suitable for low-current applications
It is suitable for high-current and high-frequency applications
Which one is better?
Some say BJT, while others say MOSFET.
People have different answers because they use them for different applications.
For example, BJTs are better in low-current applications, while MOSFETs are better in high-current applications.
To choose which transistor better suits your project, properly evaluate the key parameters of your project like budget, the switching speed required, the maximum voltage, and current ratings of the project.
Based on these, one can then select the best employee (either MOSFET or BJT) for the task.
article/what-are-the-steps-involved-in-manufacturing-a-flexible-pcb
What are the Steps involved in Manufacturing a Flexible PCB?
With the emergence of flexible PCB technology, modern electronic gadgets have come a long way.
They are found in the core of many sensitive and delicate electronic products.
Even your smartphone, camera, laptops, calculators, and many electronic gadgets are using this technology.
What is Flexible PCB?
It is made of a base substrate material from polyimide.
This material is found both naturally and synthetically and is used in various industries like automobile, clothing, etc.
The compact nature of flexible circuits and high electrical-connection density offers us considerable weight, space, and savings compared to the traditional rigid printed circuit boards.
This technology can reduce the total costs of electrical interconnections by up to 70% and wiring use by up to 75% when attached to the right application.
Moving forward, this article will guide you to a step-by-step manufacturing process of flexible circuit boards.
Step-by-step Manufacturing Process of Flex Circuit Boards
The manufacturing method is procedural and structured.
Let’s understand three significant manufacturing steps:
STEP 1: Flex PCB Build Up
This is the primary phase, where the main focus is to save the base material.
The primary material used for the flex circuit is polyimide.
This material is expensive as compared to FR-4 and needs to be used properly.
For appropriate polyimide usage, you need to keep circuits close to each other as much as possible using the nesting technique.
The prototype PCB manufacturing includes the following processes:
: Adding a slight amount of extra material beyond the designer's limit is acceptable.
This extra material is known as a service loop that enables the servicing length and circuit assembly.
: It provides the greatest flexibility, thus you need to select the thinnest copper, particularly when you want to use the circuit for dynamic applications.
: This process is done to compensate for any isotropic losses in the manufacturing process.
During this process, the line width loss is almost twice the copper foil thickness.
Several factors impact the line width, like different types of copper, etch mask, conductor, etc.
: Routing of the conductors can be done easily.
Simply get on the perpendicular position to the bend and fold.
This will improve folding and bending by reducing stress.
: Create ground areas crosshatched if the electrical allocation is adequate.
This aids in improving the flexibility of the circuit by reducing the weight of the circuit board.
STEP 2: Flexible Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Fabrication Process
Now, let’s focus on the boards.
It starts with conductor spacing and width.
Polymer thin films require a standard conductor width, i.e.375 micrometers.
Simultaneously, the nominal polymer thick films and silver-based polymer films carry the desired percentage of circuit current.
The diameters of holes in flexible PCBs can vary depending on the design and application.
With advanced technology, you can make holes as small as possible (i.e.25 μm).
Filleting is a technique where you can multiply the area of the pad and divide the stress.
All the pads and land termination points on your flexible circuits need filleting.
Plated through-holes is appropriate to create a reliable solder joint.
STEP 3: Concentrate On Physical Constraints
In this process, manufacturers deal with cover layers and cover coating problems.
We bring to you a few common cover layers used in the process:
It is appropriate for dynamic flex circuit apps as it consists of raw materials.
Adhesive-backed films are used mostly for over-coating custom PCB.
Screen-printable liquid overcoats are pocket-friendly and are generally used with thick polymer films.
It is the most advanced method of over-coating and has some surprising functionalities like:
It acts as a solder mask and prevents the solder from circuiting traces.
It protects the printed circuits from both external and internal damages.
It prevents circuits from external electrification.
PCBGOGO provides PCB manufacturing and PCB assembly services.
article/how-hearable-devices-are-evolving-to-do-just-more-than-music
Here is How Hearable Devices are Evolving to do Just More than Music
we heard of before Apple came up with the smart AirPods?
Inquisitive about the hearable tech, want to know what’s the present and future scenario of this advancing technology? Come, let’s talk about it in detail.
What does "Hearable" mean?
A hearable is a wireless ear-worn device that uses wireless technology to enhance the listening experience.
We won’t say that we are in the early adoption phases as more and more companies are combining hearing devices with entertainment attributes.
Over the past years, there is a dramatic surge in the number of people opting for smart ear-wear or hearables.
, and much more.
Additionally, the introduction of Alexa, Siri, and Google Assistant is definitely contributing to the rising popularity of hearables.
that stream music through various devices like mobile phones, laptops, etc.
wirelessly.
Hearables with Biometric Sensors
etc.
According to the market report ‘Hearables 2020-2030: Technology, Players and Forecasts biosensor,hearables will make a substantial impact on the consumer, over-the-counter (OTC) health, and professional medical markets in the coming few years.
Hearable Tech of the Future
Is the inclusion of biosensors in hearables dropping hints for more advancement? Definitely yes, the time is not far when these ear-worn devices might come with other technologies including machine learning/AI and cloud computing, etc.
to help track the physiological, physical, and emotional status of the wearer.
Blend of these technologies with the hearable technology of today might prove helpful in knowing if the person is stressed or not; if the person is stressed, how to calm down the wearer by playing their favorite music track.
Tracking emotions, how much the wearer is speaking, what’s the tone and emotion, etc.would be possible.
All this might be sounding futuristic and maybe unrealistic but across the globe, surprising advancements are already being made, while some we might be able to witness in the years to come.
Hearables Market Trend
While the early wearable market was dominated by fitness tracking applications, wrist-worn devices and other wearables like in-ear devices (hearables) have come to the limelight in today’s era.
What could be the reason for this increase in popularity of hearable devices? Well, the credit goes to advances in digital signal processing (DSP) technology, minimal batteries, improvement in Bluetooth range, etc.
Moreover, the hearable market is growing tremendously owing to the change in consumer preference and demand for the enhanced audio experience.
An increase in demand for wireless headphones and infotainment devices, an increase in demand for miniaturized wearable electronic devices for health monitoring, emerging technological advancements are the major reasons contributing to the increase in the market growth of the hearables.
Who all are the major players in the Heaarable Market?
Starting from Apple to Xiaomi, Samsung Electronics, Bose Corporation, Phonak, Oticon, LG Electronics, Sony Corporation, Jabra (GN Store Nord A/S) and others, there are many companies that arethere in the market competing in the quest to provide the best hearing experience to the end customer.
Smart Hearable Devices Launched Recently
This new voice Assistant-enabled mask and earbuds combo is one of the most interesting hearable developed by smart tech developer, Binatone.
It’s a timely product developed by combining wireless earbuds with an N95 to help limit the spread of COVID-19.
The wireless earbuds last for about 12 hours of use and link with the Hubble Connect app on smartphones.
It’s the integration with a microphone and a detachable (for washing) mask that makes it all the more intriguing.
In the year 2019, Apple launched Airpods Pro with active noise cancellation and superior, immersive sound features.
Voice-activated Siri, Audio sharing, and Eartip fit test are the additional features of the Apple Airpods.
Last year, Xiaomi launched Mi AirDots 2 SE that offers smart voice control along with touch controls for volume and track change.
What does the future hold for Hearable Technology?
Hearables with biometric, proximity, movement, and other sensors are being developed to improve the listening experience.
IoT too is playing a major role in making hearable devices unbelievably advanced.
Today’s hearables can do more than just amplify sound.
The new processors in the latest smart devices can provide always-on edge processing that enables endpoint devices like smart earbuds to handle increasingly complex computations directly on the device without sending processes to the cloud.
that can access hearables to ensure that they are calibrated to your profile; there is no end to the list of advancements taking place in the hearables sector.
With so many technological developments going around, our imagination can go wild thinking of all the possibilities.
Programmers and engineers are continuously coming up with ideas to jolt us into a new age of hearables.
The way you plug in your earphones or headphones might change maybe in some years from now.
Frankly, hearables are presenting an unprecedented opportunity for innovation!
interview/benjamin-guilloud-product-line-marketing-manager-from-stmicroelectronics-on-their-lora-enabled-soc-stm32wl
Benjamin Guilloud, Product Line Marketing Manager from STMicroelectronics on their LoRa-enabled SoC - STM32WL
of Microcontrollers.
STM32WL, a long-range wireless microcontroller series from STMicroelectronics has gained immense popularity ever since the launch.
Keenly interested in taking a deeper look into this controller, we asked Mr.
Benjamin a few questions.
He gave us the information on the new features that have been added to the STM32WL microcontroller, its compatibility, and how it's going to make an impact on the LPWAN community.
At the end of 2020, we hit the market with the latest version of our STM32WL System-On-Chip (SoC).
In it, all the internal technical structure meaning the radio part, MCU, CPU, peripherals, etc.
are embedded on the same silicon die, which makes this chip what we call a System-On-Chip.
So, we are the first company in the world to hit the market with such a product and this brings much more integration.
, more than 10 dBm when using LoRa communication, 868 megahertz, or 87 milliamps at 20 dBm.
So this is super aggressive and helps device makers to extend the lifetime of the batteries in their applications, which is of paramount importance in the LPWAN worlds.
So, that brings advanced security features for various reasons.
, where users can benefit from flash memory area which is dedicated to the storage of objects or keys or any other objects, like protocol keys, for example, can be managed securely.
You can deactivate new keys; you can securely move your object in the center inside the memory.
We can think of other advanced features such as a secure firmware installer or secure firmware update.
through random number generators, etc.
So, this latest version of STM32WL dual-core comes with advanced security features and much more flexibility for the users.
, all of this is feasible.
You have full flexibility with this STM32WL because the platform itself remains always open.
So, you can target whatever geographic area that you want in the world.
It is 868 in India and Europe, 915 in America, 923 in Asia, 470 in China; all of this is addressable with WL.
Also, you need to take into account the power aspect, because the maximum level of power that can be used depends on the region as well.
For this, we have a dual power output.
One power output can go up to 22 dBm and in such cases, these can be used in America or China.
There's also another power output that can go up to 15 dBm.
In that case, search for output can be used in Europe.
The main difference between the two power outputs is that one is more efficient in terms of power consumption but both of them are programmable from 0 to 22 dBm, or from 0 to 15 dBm for the second power output.
This makes STM32WL worldwide compatible.
Regarding the applications, we can clearly say that there is big traction from utilities and also from asset tracking and smart logistics.
So, utilities with a smart water meter, gas meter electricity meters, etc.,and in terms of security asset tracking in the smart logistics as well such as pallet trackers.
With WL, we target all the current LPWAN vertical markets, in the smart home, smart agriculture, smart industries, smart citizen building, etc.
In terms of geographic spread, there's a very good trend actually in all the regions.
Of course, the size of the market is somewhat bigger in Asia but, overall the traction for WL is extremely good in all the countries.
So the board number with Nucleo - WL55 JC1 or JC 2 depending on the region that you want to target.
JC 1 will be used for America, Europe, and Asia, whereas JC2 will be used for China.
These boards are available from distributors right now.
that can be used to configure the pinout of the chip and to automatically generate some code that is useful for prototyping the application.
, which is an embedded software package containing plenty of application examples.
We have made all of these free of charge for the customers as we want to enable a maximum number of users to help them through their developments.
article/understanding-risc-v-architecture-and-why-it-could-be-a-replacement-for-arm
Understanding RISC-V Architecture and Why it could be a Replacement for ARM
is basically the portion of the machine that is visible to the assembly level programmer or the compiler writer.
ISA is where software meets hardware.
ISA defines the commands/ instructions that can natively be understood by a machine and its micro-architecture, and it also defines how the instructions are to be stored, accessed, and implemented.
tell us about the function of each instruction and how the instruction is represented in memory (encoding).
defines, the number and size of caches, cycle counts of instructions, pipeline length, and more.
Having understood what ISA is, we now move on to give an overview of RISC-V and ARM architecture.
RISC-V Architecture Overview
RISC-V is the fifth edition of the RISC ISA designs from UC Berkeley.
The roman numeral “Vᾠsignifies “variationsᾠand “vectorsᾠto support a range of computer architecture research.
Features of RISC-V Architecture
RISC-V is a load-store architecture, meaning three things: (i) Its arithmetic instructions operate only on registers, (ii) Only load and store instructions transfer data to and from memory, and (iii) Data must first be loaded into a register before it can be operated on.
RISC-V is not over-architectured/over-optimized for any particular implementation, micro-architectural pattern, or deployment target and hence it is suitable for all computing purposes.
It is able to do this because its ISA is broken down into two parts, the base ISA and optional extensions.
The base ISA is restricted to contain a minimal set of instructions that are enough to form a compiler target and to satisfy the modern operating systems.
The base ISA cannot be re-defined and it is present in any implementation.
There are additional ISA extensionsthat can be added to the base ISA depending on the implementation.
This allows the RISC-V to also support extensive customization and specialization.
It is the smallest ISA for 32-bit and 64-bit addresses and uses little-endian byte ordering for the memory system.
Little-endian byte ordering means the least significant byte of multi-byte data is stored at the lowest memory address.
The LSB is stored first.
RISC-V uses RVC (RISC-V code compression) technique to improve the program code size and also reduces the number of CPU cycles per instruction at the cost of increasing the number of instructions per program.
It sacrifices code density to simplify the implementation circuitry.
RISC results in large code sizes that are not optimum, particularly for embedded systems because they have a limited instruction memory capacities.
To reduce the code size, RISC-V uses its RVC extension.
RVC substitutes the common 32-bit instructions with shorter 16-bit instruction encodings.
It also has no branch delay slot.
ARM Architecture Overview
ARM originally stands for Acorn RISC Machine but it was later changed to Advanced RISC Machine.
It is arguably, the most commonly used processor architecture in the world.
for different applications.
They are A, R, and M architectures.
Optimized to run complex operating systems such as Windows and Linux.
It offers the highest performance.
Optimized for systems with real-time constraints such as embedded control systems.
Optimized for low-power devices and is used by many IoT devices
Features of Arm Architecture
It is a load-store architecture with a 32-bit addressing range.
Unlike RISC-V, it is not an open-source ISA but a proprietary ISA.
It uses bi-endian byte-ordering for the memory system.
This means an arm processor/machine is able to compute/pass data in both endian formats at a hardware level.
It uses the Thumb instruction set to reduce the program code size.
Thumb is also known as theT32 instruction set, it is used in pre-Armv8 processors.
It is a mixture of 32-bit and 16-bit length instruction set which has an optimum code density for systems with a memory size and cost constraint like embedded applications.
It provides the high performance of a 32-bit instruction set and it almost provides the code density of a 16-bit instruction set.
Now that we have an insight on ISA, RISC-V, and ARM, we will compare the two side-by-side based on a variety of factors.
Open-source
Proprietary
Little-endian
Bi-endian
(RVC)
(Thumb)
none
none
Why is RISC-V Considered a Threat to the ARM Architecture?
RISC-V allows the user to extend the ISA with new instructions and innovate the micro-architecture of the RISC-V processors for free but ARM asks the user to pay royalty-fees.
This made RISC-V quickly welcomed by many manufacturers.
In terms of complexity, ARM is considered to be more complex than RISC-V.
The other reason is that ARM is more over-optimized for mobile-phones than it is for laptops, desktops, and servers.
RISC-V is not over-optimized for one particular implementation.
It is suitable for all computing systems, from microcontrollers to supercomputers.
Summary
RISC-V and ARM are both RISC ISA Architectures.
The former is open-source while the latter is a proprietary ISA.
This article first covered the meaning of ISAby breaking down the term into Instruction, Instruction Set, Architecture and describing each of the individual words.
Both RISC-V and ARM have their own advantages and it hard to take a side, but the flexibility and open-source nature of RISC-V has made it possible to be adopted faster into the electronics industry, promising a potential future!
interview/mayank-rajput-founder-of-stretchskin-technologies-on-how-his-company-builds-comfortable-and-sensitive-wearable-devices
Mayank Rajput, Founder of StretchSkin Technologies on How His Company Leverages Stretchable Electronics to build Comfortable and Sensitive Wearable Devices
with the aim to develop next-generation soft sensors for a wide range of applications from gaming, rehabilitation, fitness for exercise, analytics, and medical purposes.
, we spoke to Mayank Rajput, Founder of StretchSkin Technologies, and asked him a few questions.
Hit a jump to read the entire conversation we had with him.
Stretchable electronics from StretchSkin Technologies take on a hybrid combination of soft functional materials, compliant membranes, sensors, and integrated functional chip components to achieve mechanical reliability and sensitivity along with high flexibility and stretchability attributes.
We use high-performance nano-materials, nanowires, nanoparticles in a polymer matrix because of its excellent electrical and mechanical properties.
At the same time, it also has biocompatible qualities making it suitable for the human skin.
A conforming contact allows continuous, real-time monitoring of body movements and detects a subtle change of motion.
Apart from motion detection, our stretchable electronics-based sensors can also detect force.
the use of stretchable electronic sensors.
The electronic assemblies have multiple sensors in them and can be deformed into any shape and size thus allowing them to be placed on any part of the human body.
CMOS-based electronic sensors and components are still mechanically rigid and brittle and there is still less demand due to the limitation in terms of accuracy, big sizes, non-ability to be deformed in different shapes and sizes, and high-power consumption.
So, there is always a problem with body conformal electronic systems with these sensors.
On the other hand, sensors based on stretchable electronics are flexible and stretchable.
These are further deformable into curvilinear shapes to enable functionalities that were impossible to achieve by traditional hard and rigid electronics.
The core properties of stretchable electronics facilitate the development of wearables that are pervasive and unobtrusive for applications such as healthcare monitoring, Industry 4.0, smart clothing, and gaming peripherals.
in October 2018 with a vision to improve the life of people in Southeast Asia and India with affordable digital rehabilitation as a primary focus using sensors, games, and smart clothing.
The very first product from our company is the Virtual Exercise Therapy System (VETS) which comes with a data-driven personalized recommendation.
It is under pilot testing at elderly care centers in Singapore.
We have also made affordable data gloves for gaming and active rehab which are under internal evaluation.
Rehab gloves and body joints measurement soft wearables will be available separately.
These can be used with the developed Android apps and can further be integrated with VETS for further advanced data-driven recommendations.
We have made several stretchable sensors such as resistive and capacitive sensors and gel-free conductive electrodes but their future implementation would require mass production.
There is a need for an automated approach in the printing process that produces all‐printed stretchable electronics that comprise the soft silicone elastomers and conductive materials.
The automated approach is used to create and maintain complex conductive and multi-layer geometries on a single printing platform, which will facilitate increasing process scalability and repeatability.
Without an automated printing process such as roll-to-roll manufacturing, it would be difficult to further scale up the manufacturing process of stretchable sensors.
Furthermore, the mass manufacturing quality testing of multiple sensors at the same time requires multiple testing machines that need substantial capital to speed up the delivery time.
To solve the mass manufacturing problem, we are working towards a strategic partnership with the leading contract manufacturer for printed electronics in the US.
Currently, companies are using multiple approaches such as BLE, Wi-Fi, etc.
to communicate flexible and stretchable devices in the world.
We are working with Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) which uses 2.4 GHz radio frequencies with a simple modular system to communicate our devices.
Our use cases and applications don’t require 24 X 7 monitoring.
So, power consumption is not a major problem for us till now.
Furthermore, we are also exploring NB-IoT for some StretchSkin wearables for the Industry4.0.
Various electronic components and sensors are connected in a stretchable device with the help of stretchable conductive tracks and conductive epoxies.
Later, based on the application requirement, we combine stretchable sensor assembly with rigid electronics such as the control unit consisting of a signal conditioning circuit, battery, and microcontroller.
Currently, we are not using any fabric for sensing.
Yes, there are multiple variants of sensors and electronic components such as strain sensor, force sensor, EMG electrodes, passive components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc.
which are the backbone of our tech.
We print these sensors and components in-house using screen-printing and several other coating techniques.
The global market for stretchable electronics (e-skin) itself around the US $400M but its application encompasses wide-ranging use of wearables in various markets which is worth US$300B.
About 60% of wearables are pretty much limited to wrist bands.
Many parts of the body could do with specifically designed wearables such as the spine, private body parts, fingers, toes, etc.
using stretchable electronic skin-based wearables.
We are talking about expanding the global wearables market which up till now has been limited to certain parts of the body, with products coming from a limited number of companies.
There are multiple opportunities for e-skin wearables in the market.
Currently, the focus in academia and Industry is on tactile sensing capabilities such as strain, pressure, and temperature are important for health monitoring in skin attachable wearables, and object manipulation and detection for robotics and prosthetics.
But there are other emerging trends in e-skin wearables that have created a dramatic impact on human-computer interaction and human-machine interfaces mainly using neural electrodes, EOG, EEG technologies.
article/how-blockchain-can-make-internet-of-things-iot-more-secure
How Blockchain can make Internet of Things (IoT) More Secure?
, is it even feasible? Is it the future? If yes then what are the applications of Blockchain in the IoT industry?
If you are interested in diving into a world of two major emerging technologies and the intertwining that is going to happen between them, then this article is definitely a good piece for you.
Keep reading!
What is Blockchain? Is it even real?
in general and Bitcoin, in particular, to invest their capital in Bitcoin in order to gain maximum profits and yes people did manage to get high ROI (return on investment) during this phase.
and its security.
One can find many complicated definitions of Blockchain spread all over the internet but in very simple terms:
).
Blockchain vs Cryptocurrency Battle
Most people think Blockchain and Cryptocurrency is one thing with different names and on top of that, there is a general misconception that when we talk about cryptocurrency or blockchain, we are talking about Bitcoin.
and numerous other applications are its sub-set.
So it should be clear now that Blockchain, Cryptocurrency, and Bitcoin are not interchangeable terms.
How Blockchain is changing the future?
and it will change the way transactions happen.
Low transaction fees, faster transfers, and what not.
which we will discuss in the IoT applications section below.
Smart Contracts or dApps are a way to make a contract decentralized.
For example, if a Smart Contract (immutable and irreversible) is written between two companies A and B with a rule that if company A provides a software product, which passes few predefined teststo company B, the Crypto from company B account will be transferred to Company A without the involvement of any third party.
Blockchain is going to make many processes more transparent.
How Blockchain can impact IoT?
is enormous.
IoT is one of the emerging technologies picking-up hype as the networks become more accessible and cost-effective.
Applications of Blockchain in IoT
Is there a way in which we can combine Blockchain Smart Contracts with IoT to make state-of-the-art technology? The answer to this question is yes, we are at the cusp of a big technological shift in the next few years.
Given below are few examples of Use Cases of IoT in Blockchain.
Cold-chain monitoring allows the shipment of temperature-critical goods with a minimal spoilage percentage.
Traditionally, such systems are made using temperature sensors put at different locations of a shipment package and the temperature is monitored closely throughout the shipment process from manufacturing to the end customer.
With blockchain, cold chain monitoring could become tamper-proof.
Live temperature data will be put on the blockchain and the smart contract could be made so that the correct and unspoiled shipment could reach the end customer and the payment made does not go waste.
Environmental change has been taking place for a long time and it started with the advent of the industrial revolution in the past.
More and more industries produce hazardous chemicals and then push them into the environment.
Although, IIoT (Industrial Internet of Things) is being used to monitor the insides of the industry, yet no efforts are made to protect the environment in general.
Blockchain when merged with IoT can provide a robust system in which the environment sensors are placed throughout the city and around the industries and knitted into the public blockchain.
So, whenever the toxic chemicals produced by an industry exceeds the maximum limits, a smart contract kicks in and autonomously fines that particular industry.
This procedure can make the whole process of conserving the environment more transparent and faster.
Countless ride-hailing services exist around the world with tens and hundreds more being added on a daily basis.
Blockchain based ride-hailing service can provide a robust system.
Imagine a few autonomous cars with all sorts of maintenance sensors present in them and all of them are on a blockchain with their unique ID.
Now on the other end, there is a client-side app again on blockchain and decentralized app where a user can order a ride.
Whenever a ride request is made from the app, a Smart Contract kicks-in which autonomously directs the car to the passenger location, the passenger completes the ride, and cryptocurrency is automatically transferred to the car’s wallet which can then be used by the car to autonomously refuel itself or go for the maintenance and service center.
That could create a self-sustainable and fully-autonomous solution.
To sum up, we can say that the Blockchain and IoT both hadvetheir benefits when they were being used separately butwhen technologists realize the potential of the applications when Blockchain and IoT are merged, fully-sustainable and autonomous systems came into existence.
It's a matter of just a few years and not centuries when we will see countless similar applications getting their place in our daily lives.
article/biometric-access-control-where-we-are-today-and-what-to-expect-in-the-future
Biometric Access Control: Where We Are Today and What to Expect in the Future
that provides access based on physical characteristics.
What is Biometric Access Control?
uses pattern recognition to collect unambiguous biometric data, then compares it to a template already stored in a database to determine if a specific user is who they claim to be.
Biometric authentication provides a more secure and reliable form of identification because it requires the physical presence of the individual to authenticate.
, airport security, law enforcement, and banking transactions.
As demand for higher security and user convenience increases, more organizations are turning to access control systems that are based on fingerprints, facial recognition, and iris scanning.
Fingerprint Access
collect unique fingerprint data, analyze it, and record it in a data file for future comparison.
The fingerprint pattern is captured with the user’s consent when they register with the authorization database for the first time.
The stored data will then be used as a reference template whenever the user tries to gain access.
is that it is very easy to set up.
There aren’t any cameras or lots of moving parts involved.
The integrator only needs to install a fingerprint recognition terminal near an entry point and connect it to a specific door lock.
Fingerprint access controls are a popular choice for many businesses and facilities because they are also difficult to hack.
Users are identified using unique biometric data - not passwords or codes that can be forgotten or stolen.
This helps keep intruders away from restricted areas and equipment.
In the past, only high-security installations could afford to deploy a fingerprint-based security system.
The cost of this technology has however dropped significantly over the last few years - making fingerprint access control available to a wide range of low-budget applications.
While fingerprint scanning is an incredibly accurate method, it is important to note that the scanner can still be thrown off.
Imperfections such as small cuts on a finger can lead to an authorization denial for people who should otherwise be able to enter.
This problem may be solved by combining fingerprint scanning with a backup method such as a passcode.
Thanks to its high accuracy and convenience, fingerprint access control has made its way to smartphones and other mobile devices.
Utilization will continue to increase as average users get more comfortable with this technology.
Face Recognition Access
to find a match and identify the user.
is beginning to replace key cards and other legacy systems as it enables a passive, frictionless, and seamless access solution.
Users do not have to worry about forgetting their badge or keycard combination.
They only need to momentarily pause at a door point reader and wait for the door to open.
This ensures total convenience and saves time when users are entering the building.
At a time when many organizations are wary of the spread of infection, face recognition can enable a touch-less, hygienic experience.
, concerns still exist.
Matching errors may manifest due to poor images, bad angles, or bad lighting.
At a time when massive data breaches are occurring on an almost regular basis, there are also questions over privacy.
Users may be unsettled to think that their facial image is at risk of being stolen.
Some of these limitations may be overcome by using layers of encryption for privacy, using artificial intelligence to improve system functionality, utilizing higher resolution cameras, and using 3D sensors to guard against spoofing.
have resulted in a rapid expansion of how this technology is used.
Airlines are increasingly using facial mapping to replace boarding passes.
Smartphones from Apple and Samsung already use face ID for device unlock.
As mechanisms for privacy and security regulations continue to be developed, we can expect facial recognition applications to be even more prevalent in the future.
Iris and Retina Scanning
Iris and retina scanning technology use the eye as a characteristic for authorized user identification.
Retinal scanning requires the user to get very close to the scanning device.
A beam of light will be sent deep inside the eye to capture an image of the retina (located on the back of the eye).
Because this method is quite intrusive in nature, it is not widely used today.
Retinal scanning provides more accuracy compared to other types of biometrics but also remains the most expensive access control method.
is also non-intrusive because the camera can capture an image of the iris at a distance of between 3 and 10 inches away.
Iris scanning technology is already being used to automate border crossings in some countries.
While iris scanning is highly accurate and very secure, it may still be thrown off by contact lenses, dark eyes, and lashes.
Adoption of iris scanning is beginning to gain momentum.
Modern iris scanning access controls are able to detect people in motion, capture accurate results through contact lenses and eyewear, and operate reliably in low light conditions.
There’s a growing application of these systems in law enforcement, healthcare identification, consumer banking, and enterprise.
will be better placed to use the latest technology for a reliable and convenient security administration.
article/top-10-micro-robots-changing-the-future-of-robotics
Watch out for these Top 10 Micro-Robots that could potentially alter the Future of Robotics
takes place is fast paving the way for the development of robots that are smaller than a human hair.
Yes, you read that right.
From microbots that can walk, fly, swim, climb, crawl, and do various tasks like delivering drugs in our bodies, identifying cancers, destroying tumors; several innovations have been made around the globe.
All thanks to the latest advances in electronics, mechanics nanotechnology, and computing.
These micro-bots are the results of superb engineering and are developed to solve many purposes; be it in the field of military, healthcare, or engineering.
So without further ado, let’s check them out.
1. Laser-Activated Microscopic Robot
are about 5 microns thick, 40 microns wide, and 40 to 70 microns in length.
These tinyrobots are controlled by flashing laser pulses at differentphotovoltaics, which helps charge a separate set of legs.
To enable the robot to walk, the laser is toggled back and forth between the front and backphotovoltaics.
2. Sea Creature Inspired Aqua Robot
mimics the behavior of marine life and moves at a speed of one step per second.
It is nearly 90% water by weight does not require complex hardware, hydraulics, or electricity for movement instead it is activated by light and walks in the direction of the external rotating magnetic field.
The water-filled structure of this micro-robot and the embedded skeleton of aligned nickel filaments are ferromagnetic, thereby enabling precise movement and agility.
3. Bioinspired Micro-Robot
can withstand the simulated blood flow.
It spans every cell, offering an ideal route for navigation.
The diameter of this microcontroller is under 8 micrometers and is made of glass microparticles.
One side is covered with a thin nickel and gold film, the other with anti-cancer drug molecules and specific biomolecules that can recognize cancer cells.It has the coating of cell-specific antibodies on the surface and can release the drug molecules.
In the laboratory setting, the microcontroller can reach a speed of up to 600 micrometers per second which is around 76 body lengths per second.
4. Lego-Like Magnetic Microbots
can hook up the brain cells (individual neurons) together to make a neural network.
5. Miniscule Robots
are created with a3D printingtechnique that involves interlocking multiple materials in a complex way.
Metals and polymers have different properties, and both materials offer certain advantages in building micro machines.
Two materials i.e.metal and plastic are interlocked as closely as links in a chain.
6. Harvard Ambulatory Microbot or HAMR-JR
This penny-sized robot measures 2.25 centimeters in body length and weighs about 0.3 grams, and it can run about 14 body lengths per second.
7.RoBeetle
uses an artificial muscle system based onliquid fuel (methanol) which stores about 10 times more energy than a battery of the same mass.
This micro robot has four legs.
Its rear legs are fixed and the front legs are attached to a transmission which is connected to a leaf spring-tensioned in a way that pulls the legs backward.
The body of the robot works as a fuel tank that is filled with methanol and the design is such that the robot can stand upright when still.
The mechanical design of the system can modulate the flow of fuel using a purely mechanical system.
8. Magnetic T-Budbots
, biocompatible micromotors from tea buds to dislodge biofilms, release an antibiotic to kill bacteria and clean away the debris.
The tiny bots can integrate antibiotic ciprofloxacin due to electrostatic interaction on their surface, thereby increasing their antibacterial efficacy against dreadful pathogenic bacterial communities of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus.
Camellia sinensis tea buds are porous, non-toxic, inexpensive, and biodegradable.
Moreover, the tea buds also contain polyphenols, which have antimicrobial properties.
9. All-Terrain Microrobot
as tiny as a few human hair strands.
This microrobot can travel throughout a colon by doing backflips and transport drugs in humans with colons and other organs having rough terrain.
The all-terrain robot is too small to carry a battery; therefore, it is powered and wirelessly controlled from the outside by a magnetic field.
10.
RoboFly
.Researchers at the University of Washington have created this 74-mg flapping-wing microrobotthat can move in the air, on the ground, and on water surfaces.
This new robot was built using a lesser number of components compared to other insect-sized robots developed.
This helped in simplifying the fabrication process.
The design of this robot is such that the chassis has just a singlefolded laminate sheet.
RoboFly makes use of its two flapping wings driven by piezoelectric actuators to fly and hover as some insects do.
It can move and steer on the ground by making use of the flapping wings.
As the robot is light-weight, if modified with a set of three foot-like appendages, it can land on water surfaces.
Upon landing, the robot can move and steer on water using the same principle that is used to move on the ground.
Haven’t these tiny robots left you amazed? Ourlist of micro-robots may not be complete as certainly there are more innovations taking place while we jot down these micro-robots, or we might have missed some of them, but the list will give you a pretty good idea of where the innovations in the field of micro-robotics stand today and in which direction it is going.
article/technical-challenges-in-building-solar-powered-drones-and-how-companies-are-tackling-with-recent-advancements
Technical Challenges in building Solar-Powered Drones and How Companies are tackling them using the Recent Advancements
flying high up in the sky.
Many small private companies, large techand aviation giants like Airbus, Boeing, Google, AeroVironment, Sunbirds SAS, Sunlight Aerospace, etc.
have already been in the market for quite some time now and are working intensely towards the development of solar-powered drones.
is expected to grow by $ 485.46 million by 2024 progressing at a CAGR of 10%.
in one of our articles.
Today, we decided to shed some light on solar-powered drones, their feasibility, and technical difficulties.
What is the Feasibility of Solar-Powered Drones?
to store, and use solar energy, a vast area is required on which solar panels can be installed.
Additionally, solar panelsneed to be 100% efficient.
Let’s talk about the difficulties/challenges that have to be solved for a solar-powered drone to maximize the solar energy collection.
Large Surface Required for Solar Panels
This problem is being addressed by various companies working on next generation-type flexible, thin, and lightweight solar panels that are being extensively used.
Solar Energy Collection and Utilization
, the energy outage of the solar-powered UAV varies accordingly.
The probability of an energy outage is high in the morning due to lower harvested power and continues to increase until noon.
After noontime, the harvested power reduces and the energy outagereduces too.
During noontime, the harvested solar energy is comparatively higher.Therefore, the time to charge the battery to the same level reduces.
What’s the Solution Then?
of solar-powered UAVs.
and enabling a structure to withstand various nominal and off-nominal aerodynamic loading conditions that it might experience during flight.
is completely off-grid and is equipped with batteries making the product much more scalable.
The device is not only aimed to be used for charging drone fleets but also to gather information about solar drones and give report performance information.
, and understood some technological aspects in designing solar-powered drones and also about their feasibility.
Here is what she said:
Recent Advancements That Have Taken Place in Solar-Powered Drones Market
From the year2017when Facebook's solar-powered drone with a wingspan of a Boeing 737 took a flight to the year 2019 when Chinese solar-powered drone - Meiying flew for 10-hour long-haul in dimly-lit winter; several solar-powered drones have taken test flights.
While some proved successful, some need improvement on various fronts.
Recently, SB4 Phoenix solar-powered drone by Sunbirds took flight and crossed twice the English Channel, making a round-trip from Sangatte to Dover.
Let’s take a closer look at some of the solar-powered drones that have recently taken flight.
HAWK30 - High-Altitude Pseudo-Satellites (HAPS)
This is an unmanned, long-endurance solar-powered UAV developed in partnership between Tokyo-based SoftBank subsidiary HAPSMobile and U.S.
defense contractor AeroVironment.
HAWK30 completed a test flight at a NASA research center in California in September 2019 and is underway to begin providing HAPS-based services by 2023.
The drone is constructed from lightweight materials, has 10 propellers and a 256-foot wingspan.
The solar panels are installed on the wing surface to feed a high energy density lithium-ion battery enabling the UAV to continue flying and transmitting even after the sunset.
SB4 Phoenix Solar-powered BVLOS Drone
This fully autonomous solar-powered drone from Sunbirds took flight on September 14, 2020, by crossing twice the English Channel, making a round-trip from Sangatte to Dover.
This lightweight solar-powered drone achieved a 100 km and 2 h 21 min.
flight over the sea from one country to another with batteries 100% charged on arrival.
Korea’s Solar-Powered Drone EAV3
Recently, EAV3 made by Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) completed its Longest Continuous Flight of 53 hours at a high altitude where the air was insufficient.
This solar-powered UAV is equipped with ultra-energy-dense cells, it is 9m long, with a wingspan of 20m, and weighs around 21 kg (46 lbs).
It flew at a height of 12-18 kilometers in the stratosphere for 16 hours and broke the record of a solar-powered drone that completed a 90-minute flight at an altitude of 18 kilometers in 2016.
Google / Titan Aerospace: Solara 50 Boeing / DARPA: SolarEagle, Aurora Flight Sciences: Odysseus, BAE Systems: PHASA-35, Chinese Academy of Aerospace Aerodynamics (CAAA): Caihong (Rainbow) T-4, Facebook / Ascenta: Aquila, Airbus: Zephyr-S are some of the other solar-powered UAV drones that have been designed and developed in past few years.
Seeing the solutions and witnessing more and more companies joining the bandwagon, it’s hard not to predict the bright prospects that lay ahead for solar-powered UAVs.
Efforts are actively underway worldwide to develop this technology to be applied to aircraft, primarily because it can perform tasks in an eco-friendly manner at a lower cost.
From helping in various military operations, data collection, and drone-based delivery for disaster relief and commercial retailers, solar-powered UAVs have made it markedly more efficient and economical to get things done.
We won’t be wrong in calling the solar-powered UAVs and the next big thing!
article/project-management-tips-to-help-avoid-delays-during-electronic-product-development
Project Management Tips to Help You Avoid Delays during Electronics Product Development
Take a moment and think of the last project you worked on.
How many things didn’t go as planned? How many delays did the project experience in each phase and how could they have been avoided? Delays in any schedule are frustrating; when they happen in electronics project development, it can easily lead to a startup losing its edge in the market.
Rightfully, this is of major concern (or at least it should be) to hardware developers and startups.
Unfortunately, electronics project development delays are something founders and developers of all experience levels encounter during just about any given project.
In this article, we will go over the core causes of electronics project development delays, and then outline preventative strategies that have been effectively used in project management to help make the entire project sing.
Core Causes of Electronics Projects Development Delays
Every project has its ups and downs, good days and bad ᾠbut when we take a logical look into the mechanisms at work when schedule delays occur, we can see (hopefully only one of) seven factors at work:
ᾠDFM is what should be at the top of mind during the manufacturing process because it is pivotal to the project’s success.
DFM includes deciding specifics on the manufacturing process, product/part/board/chip design, materials used, environment, compliance/testing, and that barely breaks the surface of what DFM is all about.
It’s so important that any aspect of hardware design not being DFM can cause even the most amazing projects to stall.
) or missing a requirement on certification for a different country can be extremely costly in regards to budget and schedule.
ᾠDuring the development process, things can look great on paper but occasionally don’t work out so well when things move into test production.
Many product defects are generally found after testing which requires developers to design changes.
This takes significant time to resolve the issues and make trade-off decisions, e.g.to downgrade the specificationsor change components (potentially increasing price).
ᾠOften during the development process, you may receive new suggestions or feedback from customers which you want to implement immediately.
However, these small changes here and there can have a ripple effect on your whole product design causing further delays and other work needing to be redone.
ᾠFor one reason or another, the money has dried up and the project can’t continue until more funding becomes available.
ᾠOne (or more) of the hardware elements in your project is out of stock and has put your project on the shelf until more units are available.
ᾠOtherwise known as ‘plan-bᾬ while everyone wants a project to succeed and go smoothly from start to finish, things can be put on hiatus if an unforeseen issue occurs and there’s no plan to fall back on.
While the above list gives many people reason enough to call it quits, nothing would get accomplished or created if everyone gave up.
DON’T GIVE UP! You have a good idea and it should be seen through to production.
Let’s look into how we can get you there.
Preventative Strategies Using Project Management
Proper prior planning prevents poor performance.
In that vein and considering the core electronics project development delay causes outlined above, some of the top prevention measures you can take are fairly straightforward and easy to implement.
are the difference between a one-off and a scalable product.
Work together with everyone involved to fill in ALL the blanks to ensure smooth and efficient manufacturing.
) as well as if there are different country certification requirements.
In regards to budget and schedule, learning aboutquotations on certificationsand sourcing is highly recommended.
Design changes from testing failures will be hard to completely avoid, but finding an experienced development/manufacturing partner who has experience with similar products in the past will reduce a lot of the risk.
And for those problems that do arise, they will help provide workarounds and practical suggestions that will help you make quick decisions to avoid causing too much delay.
It sounds easy to say, but you must commit to locking down your specifications before getting too far into development.
Save your new features for the next generation product.
Unless it will make or break your product, it’s best to just get your product out there rather than spend eternity in development trying to perfect it.
Prevent running out of funds by planning ahead and creating a logical, reasonable, and feasible budget.
Excel is your best friend here, list everything out, and arrange it to make sense for you and your project.
Think of and make lists for things like NRE (Non-recurring Engineering) costs, BOM (Bill of Materials) costs, logistics, and anything else your project includes.
It sounds like a no-brainer, but consulting toget a quotefrom an expert if you’re not sure about your numbers is a smart move and can actually save you time in the long run.
They can help take a lot of pressure and stress off of your shoulders if you’re struggling to budget.
If your electronics project requires multiple parts and/or large quantities of parts, plan ahead and either source more than one supplier for the parts or hold extra stock ᾠthat way you’ll have a backup if the main source dries up.
In addition, stay away from unique or specialized parts as they are likely to have longer lead times and will be harder to replace if any issues occur.
Any experienced project manager understands risk control, and making recovery plans during the project development cycleis part of their standard operating procedure.
Proper project management can be so effective in preventing unforeseen delays.
Understanding what could go wrong is the first step in preventing that from happening.
The second step is making a plan to either stop it from happening or work around it if it does.
Proper prior planning prevents poor performanceevery time.
Communicate Your Electronics Project Development Plan
Communicate with outside experts to help ensure your specifications are clear and comply with DFM standard practices to ensure the best manufacturing experience and results possible.
Preventing delays in electronics project development (and many other things in life) comedown to planning the entire process, talking it over with your team, and working with other professionals who have electronics project development experience and success.
interview/ashish-kushwaha-founder-ceo-of-farmingforall-on-how-his-iot-based-irrigation-controllers-help-to-maximize-crop-yield
Ashish Kushwaha, Founder & CEO of FarmingForAll on How his IoT based Smart Irrigation Controllers Can Help Maximize Crop Yield
With the ever-increasing population, there is a rising need to grow organic food, and making optimum utilization of places like balconies in high-rise societies is becoming vital.
The agriculture sector too needs to be digitalized.
Farmers today are facing various problems like there is a lack ofa proper irrigation system that ensures the water is distributed equally to the entire farming area.
Moreover, farmers are not much aware of howsoil moisture, pH, temperature, humidity, and light data can help them enhance productivity.
understood the issue and wanted to make optimum utilization of his expertise in industrial automation to bring about digitalization in the agriculture sector and promote organic farming.
His company develops smart irrigation controller system which can be easily operated with their mobile and web application.
The use of sensors and technologies like the Internet of Things, cloud, Artificial Intelligence, wireless, Bluetooth make the solution fast and reliable.
In the quest to know more about the company, the products being developed, and how these devices aim to help solve the farming issues, we sat down with Mr.
Ashish and asked him a few questions.
Here’s the entire conversation, we had with him.
I've been working in the IT industry for the last 14 years and I was working on designing and developing enterprise solutions as well as industrial automation.
Simultaneously, I was thinking of ways to start my venture but I was inclined towards making some products with industrial automation.
So, I thought of looking around and finding the problem that I can solve with my creative ideas and technical experience.
The population is increasing at a great pace and agricultural lands are reducing.
Besides, the number of high-rise societies is increasing.
This has somewhat reduced the space available for growing plants.
I am living in a high-rise society and have been facing problems in growing plants.
So, I thought of making use of the balconies of the apartments for the kitchen garden.
It was then that I came up with the idea of automating the system that will help out in irrigation as well as in making a kitchen garden that can be automated.
Also, I thought of enabling people to grow organic food with the automation system so that when a person goes out of the house, he/she should be able to check the status reports like availability of water for plants on the mobile phone itself.IoT systems have logistic issues and automation is a bit challenging.Having expertise in the area, I thought of implementing my experience and bringing about change.
After doing a lot of research in the agriculture domain and conducting a survey to know the problem areas from farmers in six states i.e.
Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Delhi, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, we designed the two devices.
We got connected with 500+ farmers in around three to four months and collected the data.
To utilize this system, we have some pre-conditions because whenever we have to design a device, we have to define the boundary of the system as well.
The precondition of the system is that we need drip irrigation.
It is suitable for greenhouse, open area farming fields as well as vertical gardening and kitchen gardens.
Drip irrigation is important because we are using sensors and these devices are costly.
Drip irrigation will help us to distribute the water to every corner of the field equally.
That means, if we get the data from one place, we can assume that the same amount of water and humidity levels are there at other places as well.
So, for up to one acre of land, we suggest one controller and four data collectors to be used.
The pH is not something which can be easily changed, it takes time.
While on the other hand, we can capture temperature and humidity data and predict the sunlight that is required.
For soil moisture, we have to ensure that every area of land should get an equal amount of water through the drip irrigation method.
Recently, we have done a tie-up with theSchool of Agricultural Sciences, Sharda Universityand Dr.
H.S.
Gaur is mentoring this pilot run.
We have set up a pilot run in a greenhouse that is situated in Greater Noida at Sharda University.
Currently, we are doing three weeks of pilot run.
These devices have been deployed in their greenhouse.We are using cherry tomatoes and we have divided the greenhouse into two parts, one is integrated with the smart devices from our company, and in the other part, the traditional irrigation system is used.
We will be capturing one-month data.
We took two weeks for setting up the greenhouse and four weeks for testing the data digitally.We are expecting to get the publisher report by this month or by January.Nobody can capture these scientific facts like the greenhouse environment like pH values, soil moisture data, etc., which our company is working on.The School of Agriculture Science, Sharda University is validating each and everything.
We are also using the traditional method to collect the data and we will be comparing it with the data captured by our devices to get a clear idea if these devices are producing accurate results or not.
This is an R&D-based project, so we invested a lot of time in the research.
This is a new domain for me and I also researched a lot about smart farming, precision farmingand learned a lot.
As far as the right resources are concerned, there is a skill set that is required.
It is a research-based work and finding the research people is also tough.
When we wanted to startPOC, due to the COVID- 19 pandemic, the scenario changed and we faced challenges.We were not able to get the sensors from March till June 2020.
This problem had to be solved, so I sat down with my entire team and decided to develop a back-end application that is a completely IT-based solution, and thereafter, we started working onPOC.
Another challenge we faced was in the integration.
To overcome this, we worked on a complete back-end application that is completely cloud-based and we can handle any number of users in our system because we have used microservices, the best practices for developing our software application.
As far as IoT is concerned, different sensors have to interact and the data has to be given back.
Manufacturing and fabrication of the devices was the most challenging part.
The device that we have is a complete prototype device that is the 3d-printed model and the device which we are using in industries is a commercial device that will be available will IP 65 that means it is waterproof and dustproof and we have a different device for the steel.
By next week, devices will be ready.
All in all, the development of devices and data are the challenges that we faced during the lockdown.
As part of a manufacturer, we have already finalized different partners who are helping us in manufacturing.
The actual controller is an industrial-based IP 65 box that is waterproof and dustproof.
It’s a complete portable controller.
The data collector too has been manufactured.
We have started testing these actual products and trying to get feedback.
Moving on, we plan to set up a manufacturing unit so that we can manufacture these devices on a larger scale based on requirements.
It’s a big problem and till now, I have changed three vendors.
To overcome the problem, we plan to enter into manufacturing.
That's the reason I have set up the research team which is headed by Dr.
Amit Sehgal who has 20 years of research experience in electronics and wireless communication.
He has done a Ph.D.
in wireless communication.
The first design which we got from the vendor took one month for designing, and when we used to it, we found many logistic issues and the device was also not working properly.
So, we had to change the vendor.
Similarly, we faced issues with the second vendor too.
The third vendor helped us develop the right kind of devices.
So definitely finding the right sources is tough.
Besides, there are different contract and legal issues that we have to face.
Thankfully, we have overcome these issues, as we have found the right vendor.
COVID-19 pandemic has changed the scenario and automation scope has increased.
The factories require labor but they have shifted to different places and haven’t yet returned.
In coming timesskilled laborers will be required and heavy machines will be required to overcome the losses caused by the lockdown.
Automation will play a vital role.
The population of our country is continuously increasing, so we need to consume whatever we have; we have the balconies that we can use to make our kitchen garden, set up our automation system, and grow our food.
Even the societies at large can take make use of the infrastructure and grow organic food.We just need to change the mindset that might take some time, but it is required.
We need to educate the people and make them understand the current and future scenarios.
article/challenges-and-opportunities-in-setting-up-an-electric-vehicle-charging-station
Challenges and Opportunities in Setting up an Electric Vehicle Charging Station
is bright and it is actually not that far.
, and regulatory initiatives are being taken to support electric vehicle manufacturers in making a ‘greener worldᾠa reality.
being one of them.
Let’s understand why it is challenging to set up an EV charging infrastructure and what steps can be taken to address them.
1. High Cost of Setting up the EV Charging Infrastructure
The cost of setting up an EV charging station is quite high and varies according to the type of chargers being installed.
To set up the EV charging infrastructure, minimum infra requirements need to be fulfilled, and finding the right vendor and the right location is important.
The cost of setting up the EV charging infrastructure depends on the cost of land, cables, and other auxiliaries.
Additionally, there is a variable cost of electricity and power draw for fast charging.
With the high cost of setting the EV charging station, the only way to make fast charging stations viable is to increase its utilization.
Firstly, the charging infrastructure should be set at an easy-to-locate point and DC charging which is advantageous over AC charging technology should be installed.
The government also needs to intervene to help those who need to invest and profit from setting up the charging infrastructure.
2. Compliance with Multiple Charging Protocols
When asked about the challenges he faced when developing his charges, his answer was also about the un-standardized charging protocols.
“To brief on the challenges we faced in developing our charger:
There were no Indian standards available for charger architecture and power ratings.
In Decᾲ017, the first draft was rolled by ARAI as AIS138 but still no fixed standard protocols or design requirements
There is no standard charging coupler used by EV on Indian roads making it difficult to design a charger coupling socket
Component procurement and technical support was sluggish increasing product development time and costᾍ
developed by EVI technologies.
3. Safety Against Voltage Fluctuations
need specialized technical competency.
Risks like voltage fluctuations, ground fault, and over current can be risky.
In casethere is a sudden spike in the voltage; it may damage the expensive components.
Also, care must be taken to install noise filtering components.
Other than this,anASIL D level safety mechanism should be implemented.
For additional safety, EMC/EMI tests need to be performed.
Sensors like proximity sensors and control pilot sensors need to be integrated to keep a check on voltage fluctuations.
4. Hardware and Software Related Challenges
There are various hardware and software-related challenges too in setting up an EV charging infrastructure that needs to be addressed.
When the conditions stipulated in the protocol are met, the hardware components like proximity sensors and control pilot manage the connection charging the EV.
However, designing such hardware components for various protocols with different conditions is quite challenging.
Various issues like heat dissipation, insulation, grounding, voltage measurement, and power issues need to be fixed.
As far as software issues are concerned, it is mandatory that the charging should start only when certain criteria like the connection to ground, current filtering, etc.
are met.The challenge lies in programming the software to detect the protocol that the EV supports and change the charging modes accordingly.
Let’s hear from people who have done it already!
for all types of Electrical Vehicles (EVs) in India for e-Rickshaws, cars, buses, and even trucks as required.
on the topic and he enlightened us with additional information on the same.
Upon being asked about the various challenges faced in setting up the EV infrastructure in India, he said:
His company promises to offer EV owners the convenience of locating charging stations on a map, pre-book their charging slots, Smart recommendation system, and paying charges online with their EVC Finder application.
Besides, their application provides the charging station owner with the complete solution of time slot booking, billing, and complete management of the charging station.
He shared with us valuable information on what are the various challenges in setting up the EV charging infrastructure.
is yet another challenging task
However, along with the problems, we have solutions too.
The state and central governments have been making efforts to encourage the country’s adoption of electric vehicles through new policies and structures for the electrical vehicle market.
The government of India is planning to rapidly expand the number of charging stations across the country.
There are plans to install over 69000 fuel stations with each petrol pump getting a minimum of one EV charger and new EV charging stations too in the pipeline.
The Bureau of Indian Standard and Department of Science are working towards standardization of setting EV charging infrastructure and cut down the cost involved.
Also, a lot of discussions are taking place around the world for the adoption of Japanese CHAdeMO, European Combined Charging System (CCS), and the Indian Bharat Standard.
With such promising steps being taken in increasing the number of charging stations in the country, we definitely can expect to see more and more Electric Vehicles on the roads in the coming years.
article/how-charge-coupled-devices-support-advanced-imaging-systems
How Charge-Coupled Devices (CCD) Support Advanced Imaging Systems
The 60s and 70s were years filled with brilliant discoveries, inventions, and advancements in technology, especially memory technologies.
One of the key discoveries at the time was made by Willard Boyle and George Smith, as they explored the application of the metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) technology for the development of a semiconductor “bubbleᾠmemory.
which were originally designed to serve memory applications, but have now become important componentsof advanced imaging systems.
used in moving charges from within a device to an area where it can be interpreted or processed as information (e.g conversion into a digital value).
In today’s article, we will examine how CCDs work, the applications in which they are deployed, and their comparative advantages to other technologies.
What is a Charge-Coupled Device?
In simple terms, charge controlled devices can be defined as integrated circuits containing an array of linked or coupled, charge storage elements (capacitive bins), designed in such a way thatunder the control of an external circuit, the electric charge stored in each capacitor can be moved to a neighboring capacitor.
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor capacitors (MOS capacitors) are typically used in CCDs, and by applying an external voltage to the top plates of the MOS structure, charges (electrons (e-) or holes (h+)) can be stored in the resulting potential.
These charges can then be shifted from one capacitor to another by digital pulses applied to the top plates (gates) andcan be transferred row by row to a serial output register.
Working of Charge-Coupled Device
There are three stages involved in the operation of a CCD and since the most popular application in recent times is Imaging, It is best to explain these stages in relation to imaging.
The three stages include;
Charge Induction/Collection
Charge Clocking out
Charge Measurement
As mentioned above, CCDs are made up of charge storage elements and the type of storage element and method of charge induction/deposition depends on the application.
In Imaging, the CCD is made up of a large number of light-sensitive materials divided into small areas (pixels) and are used to build up an image of the scene of interest.
When light thrown at the scene is reflected on the CCD, a photon of light that falls within the area defined by one of the pixels will be converted into one (or more) electrons, the number of which is directly proportional to the intensity of the scene at each pixel, such that when the CCD is clocked out, the number of electrons in each pixel is measured and the scene can be reconstructed.
The figure below shows a very simplified cross-section through a CCD.
From the image above, it can be seen that the pixels are defined by the position of electrodes above the CCD.
Such that if a positive voltage is applied to the electrode, the positive potential will attract all of the negatively charged electrons close to the area under the electrode.
In addition, any positively charged holes will be repulsed from the area around the electrode and this will lead to the development of a "potential well" where all the electrons produced by incoming photons will be stored.
As more light falls on the CCD, the “potential wellᾠbecomes stronger and attracts more electrons until the “full well capacityᾠ(the number of electrons that can be stored under a pixel) is attained.
To ensure that a proper image is captured, a shutter for instance is used in cameras to control the lighting in a timed manner so that the potential well is filled but its capacity is not exceeded as that could be counterproductive.
The MOS topology used in CCD fabrication limits the amount of signal conditioning and processing that can be done on-chip.
Thus, charges usually need to be clocked out to an external conditioning circuit where processing is done.
Each pixel in a row of a CCD is typically fitted with 3 electrodes as illustrated in the image given below:
One of the electrodes is used in the creation of the potential well for charge storage while the other two are used in the clocking out of charges.
Say a charge is collected under one of the electrodes as illustrated in the image below:
To clock the charge out of the CCD, a new potential well is induced by holding I3 high, which forces the charge to be shared between I2 and I3 as illustrated in the image below.
Next, I2 is taken low, and this leads to a full transfer of the charge to the electrode I3.
The clocking out process continues by taking I1 high, which ensures the charge is shared between I1 and I3, and finallytaking I3 low so the charge is shifted fully under the I1 electrodes.
Depending on the arrangement/orientation of electrodes in the CCD, this process will continue and the charge will move either down the column or across the row till it reaches the final row, usually referred to as the readout register.
At the end of the readout register, a connected amplifier circuit is used to measure the value of each charge and converts it into a voltage with a typical conversion factor of around 5-10μV per electron.
In imaging applications, a CCD-basedcamera will come with the CCD chip along with some other associated electronics but most importantly the amplifier, which by converting the charge into voltagehelps to digitize the pixels to a form that can be processed by the software, to obtain the image captured.
Properties of CCD
Some of theproperties used in describing the performance/quality/grade of CCDsare:
Quantum efficiency refers to the efficiency with which a CCD acquires/stores a charge.
In Imaging, not all the photons falling on the pixel planes are detected and converted into an electrical charge.
The percentage of photos that are successfully detected and converted is known as Quantum Efficiency.
The best CCDs can achieve a QE of around 80%.
For context, the quantum efficiency of the human eye is around 20%.
CCDs typically have a wide wavelength range, from about 400 nm (blue) to about 1050 nm (Infra-red) with a peak sensitivity at around 700 nm.
However, processes like back thinning can be used to extend the wavelength range of a CCD.
The dynamic range of a CCD refers to the minimum and the maximum number of electrons that can be stored in the potential well.
In typical CCDs, the maximum number of electrons is usually around 150,000, while the minimum may actually be less than one electron in most settings.
The concept of dynamic range may be better explained in imaging terms.
Like we mentioned earlier, when light falls on a CCD, the photons are converted into electrons and are sucked into the potential well which at some point becomes saturated.
The amount of electrons resulting from the conversion of photons typically depends on the intensity of the sources, as such, dynamic range is also used to describe the range between the brightest and faintest possible source that can be imaged by a CCD.
An important consideration in the selection ofCCD is usually its ability to respond linearly over a wide range of Input.
In imaging, for example, if a CCD detects 100 photons and converts the same to 100 electrons (for example, assuming QE is 100%), then for linearity sake, it is expected to generate 10000 electrons if it detects 10000 photons.
The value of linearity in CCDs is in the reduced complexity of the processing techniques used in weighing and amplifying the signals.
If the CCD is linear, a lesser amount of signal conditioning is required.
Depending on the application, power is an important consideration for any device, and using a low-power component is usually a smart decision.
This is one of the things CCDs bring to applications.
While the circuitry around them may consume a significant amount of power, CCDs themselves are low power, with typical consumption values around 50 mW.
CCDs like all analog devices are susceptible to noise, as such, one of the major properties for the evaluation of their performance and capacity is how they deal with noise.
The ultimate noise element experienced in CCD is the Readout noise.
It is a product of the electrons to the voltage conversion process and is a contributing factor to the estimation of the dynamic range of the CCD.
Applications of CCDs
Charge-coupled devices find applications across different fields including;
CCD based detectors and cameras are used in diverse imaging applications and systems in life sciences and the medical field.
The applications in this area are too vast to mention every single one, but some specific examples include the ability to take images of cells with contrasting enhancements applied, the ability to collect image samples which have been doped with fluorophores (which cause the sample to fluoresce) and use in advanced X-ray tomography systems to image bone structures and soft tissue samples.
While the applications under life sciences include use in microscopes, it is important to note that the microscopy applications are not limited to the life science field.
Optical microscopes of diverse types are used in other cogent fields like; nanotechnology engineering, food science, and chemistry.
In most microscopy applications, CCDs are used because of the low noise ratio, high sensitivity, high spatial resolution, and rapid sample imaging which is important for analyzing reactions occurring on microscopic levels.
With microscopy, CCDs are used to image tiny elements but in Astronomy, it is used in focusing the images of large and far away objects.
Astronomy is one of the earliest applications of CCDs and objects ranging from stars, planets, meteors, etc.
have all been imaged with CCD-basedsystems.
are used in commercial cameras.
The CCDs are usually of lower quality and performance compared to the ones used in Astronomy and life sciences due to the low-cost requirements for commercial cameras.
interview/dinesh-natarajan-rnd-head-of-planys-technologies-on-how-the-company-is-redefining-the-underwater-robotic-inspections-with-remotely-operated-vehicles
Dinesh Natarajan, R&D Head of Planys Technologies on How the Company is Redefining Underwater Robotic Inspections with Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs)
Incubated at IIT-Madras Incubation Cell, Planys Technologies is India’s first OEM of compact ROV firm that has gained immense popularity since its inception.
The ROVs developed by the company are underwater drones used as inspection and survey solutions.
Besides, being an industry leader that provides smart underwater inspection solutions, the startup has been in news for the great contribution it made in the search operation for missing miners in Meghalaya.
We sat down with Mr.
Dinesh Natarajan to know about the company, the team, and the vision of the company, the challenges, and a lot more.
He is a Power Electronics graduate from SSN Engineering College, Chennai, and is the R&D head at Planys Technologies.
He has served as a senior project officer at IIT Madras and possesses experience in developing power converters for novel renewable applications and commercial units targeted towards energy generation and conservation.
Planys Technologies is India’s first Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) and an industry leader in offering smart underwater inspection solutions.
The need for a better inspection solution and our passion for marine robotics led to the inception of Planys Technologies.
Aging infrastructure is a pressing issue across the globe.
Subsea structural assets such as dams, bridges, ships, oil & gas platforms, etc.
need to be inspected at regular time intervals to sidestep catastrophic failures.
With its disruptive innovation in the field of marine robotics, NDT methods, and post-inspection data, Planys helps asset owners make data-driven decisions for maintenance and repair.
With a fleet of 6+ ROVs, a young team of 80+ members, an entirely owned subsidiary in the Netherlands and scale up operations in the Middle East, Europe & South-East Asia, Planys is all set to make an impactful global footprint in the underwater inspection industry.
Underwater ROVs can be analogous to quadcopter (drones).
When compared to drones, ROVs are meant to be bulkier, they can weigh anywhere between 10 kilos to a ton.
They are classified as heavy work-class, observation class, and mini ROVs based on the size, depth rating, and capabilities to perform tasks.
The ROV system comprises a power conversion unit that manages to deliver the quality power required for the ROV and the control station.The control station is nothing but a customized computer hosted in a ruggedized carry case to withstand the outdoor tough environment.
This serves as the control unit for the pilot to have a live visual for the ROV and pilot.
The ROV is packed with individual modules such as power conversion units, computation blocks, cameras, data acquisition units to take care of the collection of data and processing it.
A special-purpose neutrally buoyant cable serves two purposes.
One, as a high-speed communication link between the ROV and control station, and two, it carries the power to the ROV from the Sending end power conversion units.
which can perform a visual inspection.
Mike being a portable-class ROV, the volume allocated to the electronics was small, the team had a tough time to engineer the electronics related to power, communication, and computations into compact form factors without trading off the performance.
An elemental level of analysis of every module was mandatory to achieve a compact yet performing design.
We did not stop our experimentation there! Many types of communication protocols, power architectures on Mike, and we can claim that the team acquired humongous exposure to underwater robotics during the developmental phase of Mike.
After all the hard work, we ventured into still waters up to a depth of 100 meters and achieved a tether length of about 300 meters.
, it was an entirely different ball game.
We raised the bar and wanted beluga to be a tough and powerful machine that can be put to work in open water and near offshore conditions to battle ocean currents.
The weight, size, and power requirement went up by three folds; it weighs around 50kgs and a payload capacity of 15kg, and guzzles power like a 4-ton air conditioning unit.
At Planys, a thought prevails that ROVs are not limited to specific tasks that are presently being carried out, rather it has vast potential and can perform contrasting tasks, hence we make sure that all ROVs are customizable and can accommodate diversified payload clusters.
It was a great experience as a pioneer in this field.
We are the first company to work on marine robotics in India.
At that time, the market was completely unaware of ROV systems and it was extremely difficult to showcase our capabilities.
Mike served tendentiously for over 700 hours of operation.
Its functional ability validated that our hardware, software, and mechanical systems were designed to handle rough sea conditions with world-class quality.
Mike is one of the masterpieces that we build from scratch and its reliability has been proved time and again.
We have imposed various operational challenges to mike, and it handled quite well in the field.
It gives us a feeling of accomplishment when we look at Mike after each operation.
Since marine robotics is very new to the Indian market and there was no existence of an ecosystem to search for major systems like propulsion, sensors networks, and mechanical system.
We started building an ecosystem with all our vendors, figured out precise machining processes, ways to achieve tight tolerances demanded by the system.
India has a tremendous manufacturing facility but one of the difficulties is to make the technicians understand the system to get the best out of it.
We have had multiple visits to our vendorsᾠlocations and vice versa; we work together to achieve a world-class product.
The vendor interaction offers them an insight into our technology and our specific requirements and the quality we are aiming for.
Some of them went out of their way and suggested efficient manufacturing methods and processeswhich evolved our manufacturing capability.
Sonar is an acronym for the ‘Sound Navigation and Rangingᾠtechnique, which is used as a tool for underwater communications, navigation, and detections of objects and it can be either active or passive type.Sonar has widespread applications, it can be used to conduct surveys and seabed mapping, and often required to understand the underwater topography, presence of any obstacles before the commencement of any maritime infrastructural project or for study purposes.
A practical application of this survey is to quantify catchment areas of dams, which is essential information both for estimating hydropower generation and for dam safety aspects.
On the other hand, ultrasonic inspections are related to evaluating the integrity of submerged objects or structures that are subject to a high degree of corrosion.
High-frequency waves are transmitted towards the object and received.
Frequency domain analysis is performed over the received signal.
The results can be then interpreted by experienced professionals to quantify abnormalities.
It may be corrosion, physical damage, structural defects in any of the parts, etc.
As mentioned earlier, every ROV is designed to operate and function in different environments and for varied operations.
One such requirement gave us an idea to develop Mikros.
It is a purposefully mutated successor of the ROV’s serving the fleet of Planys, emerged to be the most powerful version, which can take long haul jobs over a single stretch.
An indigenously developed power conversion architecture has pushed the capabilities beyond limits.
Mikrosᾠunique ability allows it to enter confined areas that are completely inaccessible by any of Planysᾠother ROVs or other solutions available in the market.
The form factor of Mikros is very different from Beluga, on the other hand, much powerful than Mike; this feature enables it to enter and maneuver in long narrow trenches and confined spaces.
Talking about the form factor of Beluga, it’s a cuboid construction that is meant to be used in open waters and near-shore applications.
Mike is our super performer, it is the first ROV Planys has designed and still functional and one of its kind, taking advantage of its very compact dimensions, this was found to be the right tool to work with the Indian navy during the Meghalaya mine rescue mission in 2018 where it was used to scan for ratholes inside flooded coal mine shafts.
The discussion on the supply chain is not limited to the robotic companies alone, it applies to all the hardware-based companies that are trying to create and build things locally.
There are various parts and components not available within the country and hence there exists an inclination towards importing those components.
Planysᾠhas been on top of indigenization efforts right from the very beginning.
I would say this will be the right time to put efforts to produce it locally, as the long-term success of any organization is to create an environment that should eventually evolve to become sustainable.
There is a considerable increase in safety standards and practices in Indian industries and it is bound to increase in the forthcoming years.
Safety forms a pivotal part in the industry 4.0 revolution.
This encourages the invention of mechanized solutions that can outperform conventional methods without compromising on the safety standards.
Planys, pioneering the field of underwater robotics will be eyeing on opportunities to develop ROVs that have the capabilities to perform complex tasks at greater depths.We are working with defense through the iDEX program initiated by the ministry of defense (MoD) and Atal Innovation Mission (AIM) to develop indigenous products, customized for defense applications.
Furthermore, we are working towards the indigenization of certain submodules to overcome the challenges associated with long lead-time and achieve increased electronics packing density.
This will help Planys in creating much smaller and portable versions of ROVs and also pave a path to create a sustainable ecosystem.
tutorial/how-to-design-a-push-pull-converter
How to Design a Push Pull Converter ᾠBasic Theory, Construction, and Demonstration
topology becomes very crucial for practical designs.
There are mainly two types of major DC-DC conversion topologies available in power electronics, namely, the switching converter and the Linear converter.
, you can check that out if that is something you are looking for.
Now consider a situation where we need to change it to a 10V output for a specific application.
Now, if a DC-DC converter is used in this place, and the 5V 2A which is 10W output is constant, ideally the DC-DC converter will convert the Voltage to a 10V with a 1A current rating.
This can be done using a boost switching topology where a switching inductor is constantly switched.
topologies, alsoit is one of the oldest switching topologies used in power electronics that require minimum components to produce medium power outputs (Typically - 150W to 500W) with multiple output voltage.
One needs to change the transformer winding for changing the output voltage in an isolated push-pull converter circuit.
What components are important to build a push-pull converter circuit? So, read along and we will find out all the necessary answers and in the end, we will be building a practical circuit for demonstration and testing, so let's get right into it.
Construction of a Push-Pull Converter
, the push defines pushing the current or feeding the current.
Now, what pull means? Again, the dictionary says to exert force on someone or something to cause movement toward oneself.
In the push-pull converter, it is again the current that is being pulled.
The current is constantly pushed and pulled from the transformer.
Using this push-pull method, the transformer transfers flux to the secondary coil and provides some kind of isolated voltage.
available in the electronics market that can be used immediately for push-pull conversation related work.
Few of such Driver ICs can be found in the below list-
LT3999
MAX258
MAX13253
LT3439
TL494
How Does a Push Pull Converter Work?
will enable push-pull functionality.
The two transistors Q1 and Q2 cannot be turned on at the same time.
When the Q1 is turned on, the Q2 will remain turned off, when the Q1 is turned off, the Q2 will turn on.
It will happen sequentially and will continue as a loop.
As we can see, the above circuit uses a transformer, this is an isolated push-pull converter.
The above image is showing the state where the Q1 is turned on and the Q2 will turn off.
Thus the current will flow through the center tap of the transformer and will go to the ground via the transistor Q1 while the Q2 will block the current flow on the other tap of the transformer.
Exactly the opposite thing happens when the Q2 turns on and Q1 remains turned off.
Whenever the changes in the current flow occur, the transformer transfers the energy from the primary side to the secondary side.
The above graph is very useful to check how this happens, at first, there used to be no voltages or current flow in the circuit.
Q1 turned on, a constant voltage first strike to the tap as the circuit is closed now.
The current starts to increase and then the voltage is induced into the secondary side.
and the inductance forms an LC circuit that starts switching in opposite polarity.
The charge starts to flow back in the opposite direction through the other tap winding of the transformer.
In this fashion, the current is constantly pushed in alternate modes by those two transistors.
However, as the pulling is done by the LC circuit and the center tap of the transformer, it is called push-pull topology.
Often it is described in such a way that the two transistors push the current alternately naming the convention push-pull where transistors do not pull the current.
The load waveform looks like the sawtooth, however, it is not that is shown in the above waveform.
works, let's move on to building an actual circuit for it, and then we can analyze that on the bench.
But before that, let's take a look at the schematic.
Components required to build a Practical Push Pull Converter
Well, the below circuit is constructed on a breadboard.
The components used for testing circuits are as follows-
2 Pcs inductors having the same rating - 220uH 5A toroidal inductor.
0.1uF polyester film capacitor - 2 pcs
1k resistor 1% - 2 pcs
ULN2003 Darlington pair transistor
100uF 50V capacitor
A Practical Push-Pull Converter Circuit Diagram
The schematic is pretty straight forward.
Let's analyze the connection, the ULN2003 is the Darlington pair transistor array.
This Transistor array is useful as the freewheeling diodes are available inside the chipset and it does not require any additional components thus avoiding any additional complex routing on a breadboard.
For the synchronous driver, we are using a simple RC timer that will synchronously turn on and off the transistors to create a push-pull effect across the Inductors.
Practical Push-Pull Converter - Working
The working of the circuit is simple.
Let’s remove the Darlington pair and make the circuit simple using two transistors Q1 and Q2.
The RC networks are connected in a cross position with the base of Q1 and Q2, which turn on the alternate transistors using a feedback technique called regenerative feedback.
It starts operating like this - When we apply voltage to the center tap of the transformer (where the common connection between two inductors), the current will flow through the transformer.
Depending on the flux density and saturation of the polarity, negative or positive, the current first charges up C1 and R1 or C2 and R2, not both.
Let's imagine C1 and R1 get the current first.
The C1 and R1 provide a timer which turns on the transistor Q2.
The L2 section of the transformer will induce voltage using the magnetic flux.
In this situation, the C2 and R2 start to charge up and turn on the Q1.
The L1 section of the transformer then induces a voltage.
The timing or the frequency is entirely dependent on the input voltage, the saturated flux of the transformer or inductor, the primary turns, cross-sectional square centimeter area of the core.
The formula of the frequency is-
f = (Vin * 108) / (4 * βs * A * N)
is the saturated flux density of the core that will be reflected on the transformer, A is the cross-sectional area and N is the number of turns.
Testing the Push Pull Converter Circuit
For testing the circuit, the following tools are required-
Two millimeters - one for checking input voltage and another one for output voltage
An Oscilloscope
A bench power supply.
The circuit is constructed in a breadboard and the power is slowly increased.
The input voltage is 2.16V whereas the output voltage is 8.12V, which is almost four times the input voltage.
However, this circuit does not use any feedback topology, so the output voltage is not constant and nor isolated.
The frequency and the switching of the push-pull is observed in the oscilloscope-
where the output voltage is not constant.
It is expected that this push-pull converter could provide wattage up to 2W, but we have not tested it due to the lack of feedback generation.
Conclusions
for the desired output.
The circuit can be constructed in a manner where isolated or non-isolated, any topologies in push-pull conversion can be built.
The below circuit is a proper circuit of controlled push-pull DC to DC converter.
It is a 1:1 push-pull converter using LT3999 for Analog Devices (Linear Technologies).
article/are-solar-powered-electric-cars-possible
Are Solar Powered Electric Cars Possible? Reasons Why We Don’t Have One Commercially Available Yet
Various automobile companies have been working on electric vehicles but these vehicles have some dependency on fossil fuels.
What then could be the smart solution to cut down the percentage of carbon dioxide emissions from the vehicles?
of solar energy strikes the Earth continuously.
That's more than 10,000 times the world's total energy use.
And that energy is completely renewable at least for the lifetime of the sun.
that are tackling climate change smartly.
Talking about solar-powered cars, there’s a lot of buzz around.
However, no automaker till date has commercially launched a solar car for the market.
Even though we have known solar power for a decade which is one of the main sources of energy available almost everywhere, we humans yet haven’t been able to explore many possibilities of using the same for commuting.
Not that the idea hasn’t popped up in anybody’s mind.
For years, the concept of the solar-powered car has made environmentalists hopeful of the possible future.
But there are many arguments to this concept as it is considered not only impractical but kind of impossible.
Many prototypes of solar-powered cars are being tested and many big automobile companies like Toyota, Hyundai, and others are involved in developing fully-functioning solar cars or the hybrid version of the solar car.
But the question that comes to layman’s mind is that how far exactly are we from the reality of solar-powered cars?
Yet, we don’t see commercially-available cars with integrated solar technology.
Many roadblocks need to be overcome before any solar-powered vehicle will be able to fully claim to run on sun-energy.
Let’s talk about them briefly.
Hurdles in Manufacturing Solar Powered Cars
No matter how fascinating the idea of a solar-powered car sounds to be, the fact remains that it’s a costly affair.
From the initial costs of buying the solar panels to other things like inverter, batteries, wires all are costly.
Besides, storing solar energy too is expensive.
Some batteries are required to store solar energy.
These batteries are charged during the day and can be used when there is no sun.
The installation of solar panels requires a considerable amount of area to produce significant power.
Solar cars have design limitations because while aesthetics need to be considered, the design of the vehicle should also be such that it can accommodate solar panels.
Therefore, most solar vehicles have been developed to run in solar car races and not for the regular market.
These are the reasons why solar panels are not becoming a popular choice for powering a car.
In case you remember, the solar roof designed to power the Toyota Prius was found to be useful only in combination with a traditional battery charging system.
Netherlands-based EV startup Lightyear released a prototype for its first solar-powered, long-range EV.The car has a 700 to 800 km range on a small battery.
The idea was to develop a car that charges with very little electricity as possible.
Lightyear solar cars need electricity from the grid, especially in less sunny climates.
for about 20 to 25 miles.
That’s assuming a full day’s sunlight without clouds, no dust blocking the solar cells, and perfectly oriented solar cells on the car.
Cars with solar roofs can perform basic functions of the car with the sun energy.
For a vehicle to get charged from solar panels that would last for 300 miles would take approximately 90 hours.
is an automotive manufacturing company that aims to provide a substitute for fossil fuels and reach a lightyear of 100% sustainable transportation before 2035.
We approached the company and asked a few questions as to what are the major challenges the automotive industry is facing in manufacturing of solar-powered cars.
Here is what the company officials have to say in this regard.
is a company that focuses on key industries like new energy vehicles, logistics, R&D on graphene, and AI machine learning technology.
Keenly interested in getting moreinsight into the reason behind the delay in the solar-powered cars being manufactured for the consumer market and more, we talked to Tom Tsogt, Co-founder and COO of the company and he said:
While there is still time before we will be able to drive cars fully powered by solar energy, there are some alternatives such as solar power stations that are being designed to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels for electricity.
Despite the fact that there are certain limitations attached to developing fully-functional solar cars for the commercial market doesn’t mean that it is impossible.
Research is being made to create low weight batteries and high-efficiency photovoltaic cells and we are hopeful of the bright future ahead.
The technology has its critics, but we can't wait to see solar-powered cars running on the roads.
interview/sanjeev-sharma-ceo-of-swaayatt-robots-on-how-they-are-building-affordable-autonomous-driving-technology-without-lidar-and-radar
Sanjeev Sharma, CEO of Swaayatt Robots on How They are Building a Robust and Scalable Autonomous Driving Technology without the Use of Lidars or Radars
Tech giants like Tesla and Google have made self-driving vehicles the much talked about topic amongst tech enthusiasts.
Various companies around the globe are working towards developing autonomous driving vehicles for various terrains.
To make connected autonomous driving technology accessible, affordable, and available to everyone, Bhopal-based Swaayatt Robots joined the bandwagon.
However, with immense knowledge of all the technology involved in Autonomous Robotics, the CEO of the company, Mr.
Sanjeev Sharma left many tech companies behind in the race.
Since 2009, he has been researching a lot and undergoing mathematical calculations involved in coming up with smart solutions for self-driving cars.
We got the opportunity to talk to Mr.
Sanjeev and know every bit of the technology behind Autonomous Vehicles and Robotics that Swaayatt Robots is working on and their future plans.
Hit a jump to read on the entire conversation we had with him.
Alternatively, you can also watch the video below to hear the conversation between our editor and Sanjeev himself
that happened in the US.
Autonomous driving became the goal of mine during those years.
Over many years, I kept researching and did self-studies specifically on motion planning and decision making under uncertainties.
The focus was on making optimum use of machine learning, reinforcement learning, and various techniques.
I started Swaayatt Robots in 2014 but it was not simply applying the research and the studies that I had done over the past few years.
Applying some ideas in motion and decision making,I had to solve the perception planning and localization problem as well.
I had research experience only in the area of decision making and motion planning.
But the areas of perception and localization were fairly new to me.
My tremendous mathematical background helped me a lot.
Once I started developing the algorithmic frameworks to enable autonomous driving around 2015, I realized that this can be something very huge, and we can really solve the problem of autonomous driving in very stochastic adversarial traffic scenarios.
And since 2014, I have been working full time on this startup.
My research in particular covers several branchesbut,in particular, most of the focus of our company is to develop decision-making and motion planning algorithms that allow autonomous vehicles to deal with very high levels of stochasticity in traffic dynamics.
Thatamounts to roughly 65% to 70% of the research that happens at Swaayatt Robots.
Around 25% - 27% of the research goes into the area of perception, which encompasses all sorts of algorithms that process the sensor data from a vehicular robotic system, and build 3d representation of the world around it.
In perception, we are one of the very few companies in the world who can allow autonomous vehicles to perceive the environment using only off-the-shelfcameras that work during the day and night time too.
This is roughly how the journey has been so far.
Autonomous driving is the blend of three algorithmic pipelines put together viz.
perception, planning, and localization.
The algorithms take the sensory data, process it, and build a 3d representation around a vehicle.
We call them perception algorithms.
Localization algorithms try to globally accurately determine the position of the vehicle on road.
This is how robots used to work in academic settings.
In 2009, this model of autonomous driving was pioneered by Google.
Before an autonomous vehicle navigates on a certain road, the entire road has to be mapped in very high detail in 3d.
We call these maps, high fidelity maps.
These high fidelity maps store some very key information about the environment.
They typically store all the different kinds of delimiters in the environment.
Before the autonomous vehicle navigates in an environment, the entire environment is mapped in very precise manner.
All the lane markers, road boundaries, and any kind of delimiter in the environment are actually stored in these kinds of high fidelity maps.
When the vehicle navigates through an environment for which you already have high-fidelity maps, then you again capture the data from various sensors on the vehicle and try to match the data with a reference map that you have built.
This matching process gives you a pose vector that tells you where the vehicle is on planet earth and what is the configuration of the vehicle.
Once you know the position and the configuration of the vehicle on road, the entire information that you had stored in the high-fidelity maps is projected on top of the vehicle's current configuration.
When you project this information like road markers, lane markers, and any kind of road delimiter or environment delimiter;the autonomous vehicle knows where it is now with respect to a particular delimiter or from a particular lane marker.
So, this is what localization algorithms do.
The final area of autonomous driving is planning and decision making.
The more sophisticated and better the planning and decision-making algorithms you have, the more capable your autonomous vehicle is going to be.
For example, planning and decision-making algorithms will differentiate companies from being at level two, level three, level four, and level five autonomy.
Any algorithm responsible for decision making or planning the motion and behaviorof the vehicle is a planning algorithm.
The more sophistication you have in the planning algorithms, the better your vehicle is going to be.
Several motion planners and decision-makers help in evaluating the safety of the vehicle and the environment, the speed at which you are navigating, the surrounding of the vehicle, and all the parameters that you can compute from your environment.
This is what planning algorithms do.
I've been researching in the area of planning.
If you have the kind of algorithms that can deal with the stochasticity in the traffic dynamics in India.
If you can deal with that and if you have algorithms, then you have proven that if you can just build a perception and localization stack, you have a full-fledged autonomous driving technology.
You don't need to develop all different algorithms to verify what works best.
You just need to build three or four different algorithms that you knoware going to solve the key problem in autonomous driving.
Safety is the primary issue why you do not see commercial autonomous vehicles on road.
Cost and all other issues are secondary.
I could have built the entire startup on just one or two algorithms like the localization and mapping aspect of autonomous driving.
But my goal was to develop a full-fledged autonomous vehicle and not oneor two algorithms here and there.
Having proven the key aspect in the area of planning and decision making gave me the confidence to tackle the entire problem of autonomous driving at large.
Our goal is to achieve level 5 autonomy and to ensure that the technology is safe in these kinds of environments.
We are somewhere between level three and level four.
Some of the algorithmic research that we're doing is in motion planning and decision making that is targeted towardslevel five.
We are also working on enabling autonomous vehicles to be able to cross the intersection at peak traffic hours without the traffic lights.
We are targeting to achieve level-five autonomy by enabling autonomous vehicles in dealing with tight space with highly stochastic traffic.
We have done autonomous driving in a very tight environment when a vehicle or a bike was coming from the opposite end as well.
At the POC level, we have achieved between three and four-level.
We have already turned the POCs for level-four autonomy by conducting experiments in highly stochastic traffic with tight spaces.
Our current goal is to achieve 101 kilometers per hour autonomous driving on Indian roads.
Once you have proven the safety of the vehicle in these kinds of environments, you can take your technology and apply it anywhere else like in North America and Europe where the traffic is much more structured, where environments are also much stricter as compared to the Indian environments.
So, India as of now is a testing ground for us to prove that we have something that no one else has done at the moment.
Currently, we have the world's fastest motion planning algorithm that can plan near-optimal time-parameterizedtrajectories for an autonomous vehicle in 500 microseconds.
So the algorithm works roughly at 2000 hertz.
We have the technology to enable up to 80 kilometers per hour autonomous driving on Indian highways.
Achieving that kind of speed on Indian highways is very challenging.
Typically, if you can do that, you can take it elsewhere as well.
You can apply it in foreign traffic and basically, you're very close to level four.
To give you an idea, we have been working on what we call multi-agent intent analysis and negotiation.
This framework allows our vehicle to not just compute the probability of the intentions of other vehicles or agents on road.
It can compute the probabilities of the entire path sets that other agents orvehicles or obstacles in the environment cannot.
However, this capability alone is not sufficient.
For example, you can build a very computationally demanding system that can predict the future motion trajectories and perhaps compute the probabilities of all the path sets of different vehicles.
This is where you have to focus i.e.
on the computational requirement as well.
The computational demand in this problem of multi-agent intent analysis and negotiations will grow exponentially if you have not done any research, have notused the mathematics properly, or if you have not designed them properly.
I'm researching some of the concepts from applied mathematics, specifically in the area of topological theory.
I am using some of the concepts like homotopy maps, which allow our technology to scale the computations.
At least as of now, it is superlinear in terms of the number of agents as opposed to the exponential blow-up that you would encounter if you have not worked out the mathematics behind the algorithms properly.
The multi-agent intent analysis negotiation framework is further subdivided into two different branches that we're currently working on.
One is the TSN (Tight Space Negotiator Framework) and the other is the overtaking model.
TSN allows the autonomous vehicles to negotiate both the tight environments and the stochastic traffic, both at low and high speeds.
So high speed would be very useful for highway cluttered stochastic traffic scenarios and the low speed would be very useful when the vehicle is navigating in an urban scenario, where you often encounter the tightest streets with too much traffic andnoise in the traffic which means there is too much uncertainty in the traffic dynamics.
We have already been working on this for the last two and a half years, and we have already developed it in the form of POC.
Some of the bits and pieces of these frameworks that I'm talking about could be shown in the demo in our next experiment which will be targeted towards achieving 101 kilometers per hour functioning on Indian roads.
These are some of the research areas that we have already proven on the ground, and some of them are going to be proven in the next few months.
Apart from that, we are one of the only companies in the world that can enable autonomous driving in completely unknown and unseen environments for which there are no high-fidelity maps at all.
We can enable autonomous driving without the use of high-fidelity maps.
We are in the business of completely eradicating the need for high fidelity maps and this eradication is enabled by two of our key technologies.
Our TSN framework is made to set a new regulatory benchmark.
As of now, we just use off-the-shelf cameras.
If you see our demo for an autonomous vehicle, you'll notice that we had used nothing more than a 3000 Rs camera.
If you look at the perception research that is happening all over the world with the autonomous companies or robotics companies for that matter, they're using all three different sensors like cameras, LiDARs, and radars.
Currently, all our autonomous driving experiments have happened only using cameras.
When I began the company, I only had expertise in planning but since 2016, I realized that state-of-the-art research papers whatever the labs all over the world are working on; it just doesn't work in the real world.
If they work, they're too computationally intensive, and they just do not work.
So, I took perception as my primary research area as well and I devoted around 25% - 27% of my time in doing perception research.
Now, the research goal of our company is to enable autonomous vehicles to be able to perceive using only the cameras without the need for LiDARs and radars.
This is a research ambition that we want to achieve.
While achieving that, we have also ensured that we have the world's fastest algorithm for any common task.
We have two goals in perception.
One, the algorithm should be so capable that they enable autonomous vehicles to perceive using only cameras both during day and night.
We have extended this perception capability not just for the day time but at night as well using nothing but the headlight of the vehicle and regular off-the-shelf RGB and NIR cameras, the kind of cameras that you can buy for 3000 Rs in the market.
We focus more on accuracy and speed.
We've also focused on the computational requirement.
So our semantic simulation framework is up to 30 times faster than what the state of the art can offer you and significantly faster than what other technology supply company can offer you.
We've also been researching on one more area called delimiters prediction.
Lane markers and road boundaries are salined delimiters and obvious to notice.
There are also non-salined delimiters in the environment that are hard to detect.
Typically, it's very hard to develop algorithms that can almost always detect delimiters with a 100% guarantee.
This is the primary reason why autonomous vehicle companies use a high-fidelity map as a backup.
But the problem is that the process of extraction of data from high fidelity maps is so complex that the computations to localize a vehicle against HFMs cannot be done in real-time using onboard computers.
So, you need to have internet connectivity.
Delimiter prediction is our very broad research area.
The key aspect of our framework is that it both detects lane markers and road delimiters in case if they are visible.
If they're not present in the environment or visible in images, it automatically generates them in real-time.
This allows us to get rid ofthe high-fidelity map combined with our planning technology.
In terms of the perception algorithm capability, we can detect and generate.
We developed a free space direction algorithm called Deep Energy Maps in 2017, and we are far ahead of what other companies offer.
Our Deep Energy Maps work in any kind of scenario and it can actually form the non-complex bounding box around obstacles.
Unlike other companiesᾠframework, our system is 10 times faster than what other companies like what NVIDIA has developed.
When I started the company, LiDARs were very expensive, and importing them to India would cost 80-85 lakhs.
In comparison to these, the cameras were quite affordable.
All that is required in the autonomous vehicles field is proper mathematical formulations.
I had developed formulations to enable autonomous vehicles to perceive using just cameras.
The algorithmic ideas that we have developed for processing the camera data, the same ideas directly extended to LiDAR as well.
For example, one of the state-of-the-art algorithms was published last year, it's called range net + +.
It is used to segment LiDAR data.
We extended our algorithm for the idea of LiDAR data segmentation.
So, there's a deep geometric network framework that we've developed to semantically segment images.
The same idea that we used in the deep geometric network for cameras, we extended it to LiDAR and found that we are 11 times faster than the range net ++ algorithm which is used to process LiDAR data.
Furthermore, we are looking at potential collaboration with a few of the LiDAR companiesas well to develop algorithmic solutions.
“Going forward, if there's no collaboration with any of the LiDAR companies, we will ultimately make the LiDARs redundant.
LiDAR provides you a datathat adds another information dimension to your entire data that you would gather just from the cameras.
For example, they provided the 3d representation of the world directly without much effort.
And we can use that to make our algorithms more robust.
We have developed an algorithm for perceiving at night.
If we add 3d structural information on top of the camera data, we can do much more.
Any algorithm that has been developed to process the data, at least in our company, the idea is extended to the LiDAR data processing as well.
We have around 550 plus million images that we have collected from autonomous systems.
We have a local cluster of computers that we useto train our systems and the process is entirely mathematical in nature.
In Deep Energy Maps, the loss function of the neural network is related to the flow of energy in physics and for us, the challenge was to model that as the loss function in a network and relate it with the pixels.
So, the process is entirely mathematical, you have to study various mathematical branches to come up with the ideas.
If we talk about planning, I have several ideas for which we do not have enough funding to execute but these can reduce redundancy in autonomous driving, ability to work without high fidelity maps is just one of those.
Similarly, in semantic segmentation, we have the fastest block of semantic segmentation.
The question here is how did we achieve that? It is not just the implementation trick; we have to do a lot of mathematical research.
We have developed a new type of computational unit for the neural network.
I call it the geometric compute unit that I developed a few years back and this unit allows us to perform lesser computation and extract more semantic information from the images.
This is how we developed the world’s fastest network for semantic segmentation.
We are also working on various collaborations and in the future, we will be able to make implementations.
Autonomous driving in India would take some time.
In India, autonomous driving has key usage in military operations.
We are surrounded by adversaries and a new adversary is also coming into the picture.
The defense is one area where autonomous driving will find tremendous use whether our country realizes this at the moment or not.
There is enough focus on that.
Besides, the government is undertaking several initiatives to upgrade defense capabilities.
Therefore, more and more prominent applications of robotics and autonomous driving will find use in different scenarios.
Apart from that, autonomous driving will come to the Indian market first in the form of ADAS because ADAS doesn’t have to take control of the vehicle.
This is one of the diluted versions of technology at large.
By 2025, the ADAS market will be a 36 billion dollar market in India.
We don’t have to create the market; the market already exists.
We have already done the demo of our technology in a proof of concept manner.
We have collaborated with various OEMs in Europe.Apart from that, we have collaborated with some of the LiDAR companies in the US.
We are looking into collaborating with companies that have got C level funding.
We provide our technology both in an end-to-end fashion and as modular solutions.We are talking to one of our potential clients in industrial robotics for integrating our technology.
These are some areas that we are targeting as of now, and we plan to expand our horizon in the years to come.
article/how-drones-can-minimize-cost-and-efficiency-in-solar-power-plant-installations-and-maintenance
How Drones can Minimize Cost and Improve Efficiency in Solar Power Plant Installation and Maintenance
in different sectors and the horizon seems to be expanding with each passing day.
In fact, a growing number of companies are accommodating drone-based outputs into their workflows and availing maximum benefits.
in previous article.
Whether it’s about installing the solar panels, inspecting and repairing large arrays, or even surveying land for solar farm/plant set up; drone photos, maps, and 3D models ensure to help improve productivity and make various tasks easy to perform.
In addition to safety and efficiency, drones also allow for more frequent monitoring.
Not only are they an ideal choice for time-critical inspections, but they also enable more strategic planned maintenance.
Inspection data can even be sent to a smartphone app, allowing maintenance personnel to easily triage and route issues directly from the site.
include:
Increase efficiency ᾠDrones collect data 97% faster than the manual method.
Better Data Collection ᾠDrones efficiently identify the issues that manual processes might miss.
Reduced risk and man-hours ᾠWith drones, surveys and inspections can be conducted without traversing expansive terrain.
Improve asset productivity - Drones identify issues early to make informed decisions.
Processing Data Efficiently ᾠDrones help in managing data with a secure online portal, convenient reporting, and an in-field repair app.
Let’s understand how UAVs are doing their bit by helping in setting up the solar power plants and their maintenance.
Land Inspection using Drones
is not a simple flight task.
The process involves detailed planning and a thorough understanding of the land to be inspected.
There are multiple steps required to conduct a successful inspection.
The inspection team needs to confirm the dimensions of the solar farm/plant before they can prepare an effective plan.
Drones for Data Collection
Drones can help to collect the data and keep the records of previous inspections which can help the maintenance team in figuring out the causes behind panel faults.
There are cases when solar cells do not require replacement of a panel, but keeping track can prevent major failures.
The entire data can be collected, stored, and organized for processing.
The data collected during the aerial inspection after the installation is complete can be used as a baseline for upcoming inspections.
Role of Drones in Solar Power Plant Maintenance
There has been an exponential growth in the adoption of drone technology in solar power plants.
The age-old methods of operation and maintenance don’t prove to be economically feasible nowadays.
For example, two field engineers spending almost a month doing handheld IR analysis, spot checks, etc.
on a 100 MW plant will take months.
With the adoption of drone technology, these tasks can be done easily and in far lesser time.
Aerial images taken by a drone provide a broader perspective of solar plants.
This way, maintenance teams receive valuable information like the status of each panel and issues that need to be addressed in real-time.
The use of aerial images not only contributes to improved efficiency in detecting flaws but proves helpful for maintenance purposes.RBG and thermal maps provide precise location data of faults and issues, significantly increasing the accuracy of ground operations and reducing human error.
Increased Output Efficiency
Using drones help cut down the time required for the site assessment, energy maximization, etc.
This is one of the main reasons why drones are being used for solar panel inspections Acres of land can be inspected in a day that otherwise would have taken months if done manually.
Early, detection of faulty elements within a solar power plant can help in preventing major output deficiencies.
The faster the maintenance team detects possible defects, the quicker they will be able to respond and address the issue.
The inspections and maintenance conducted effectively will prove to be in the favor of the investors.
is a startup that works towards innovating and integrating drone solutions into scalable real-world applications.
Delivering quality Geospatial solutions with speed, accuracy, and innovation to public and private sectors, the company has successfully made a mark.
from Equinox’s Drones, we got insightful information on how drones are helping in solar power plants.
To sum up, drones have already started making a huge difference in the planning, construction, and operational phases of solar power plants and solar farms.
There is a range of benefits that are persuading solar farm owners to adopt drone technology and ease the process of setting and maintaining the solar power plant.
article/important-drone-regulations-that-every-drone-enthusiasts-should-be-aware-of-before-the-first-flight
Important Drone Regulations That Every Drone Enthusiasts Should Be Aware of Before the First Flight
is also practical.
Benefits like lowered labor costs, minimal technical challenges, improved visibility, and reduced downtime have facilitated the rising demand for drones.
From inspection, aerial surveying, and thermal imaging, niche inspection-related application or services are making optimum use of the UAVs to ease the otherwise daunting and time-consuming job.
Not only this, there is an increased number of collaborations taking place between technology leaders, governments of various countries, and industry players.
The optimum utilization of drones is bound to witness a transformative change in the coming years.
The benefits of drone technology are influencing the growth potential of the commercial drone/UAV market, which is expected to reach more than USD 17 billion by 2024.
Drone Regulations ᾠShould you worry about it?
for the same.
It will cost you five dollars for three years' registration.
The rules say that you can fly a drone at or below 400 feet, you need to keep your drone within sight and not fly in the restricted airspace or near any other aircraft, especially near airports.
Besides, you cannot fly over groups of people, over stadiums, or sports events, near emergency areas where incidents like fires have occurred.
These are some simple rules that every drone enthusiast must know.
General Rules for Flying Drones
Seek relevant permission from theCivil Aviation Authoritybefore flying your drone.
Follow the drone manufacturer’s instructions on every flight.
VLOS (Visual Line Of Sight): You need to keep your drone insight so that you can see and avoid other objects.
Fly below 400 feet to reduce the chances of conflict with manned aircraft.
Flight Restriction Zone: You need to stay away from airports and airfields.
Fly your drone only if you are satisfied that the flight will be safe.
No object can be dropped from the aircraft.
Failure to fly responsibly could lead to criminal prosecution
If your drone is fitted with some form of on-board camera, you need to familiarise yourself with further regulations.
Ensure any images you obtain using the drone do not break privacy laws.
,don’t fly drones without seeking the appropriate permission from authorities.
Obtaining proper permission from authorities before flying can save you from all legal headaches.
There is the No Permission, No Takeoff (NPNT) system in India that drone pilots need to follow, which means before flying a drone, each time via mobile app, one needs to take permission.
All drone users need to request permission for a flight on India’s Digital Sky Platform.
Important Rules and Regulations for Flying a Drone in India
All drones except Nano category drones (that weigh less than or equal to 250 grams) must be registered and issued a Unique Identification Number (UIN).
A permit is needed for commercial drone operations.
The ones that fall into the Nano category that are flown below 50 feet and those in the Micro category flown below 200 feet do not require a permit.
Drones cannot be flown more than 400 feet vertically.
Drone pilots must maintain a direct visual line of sight at all times while flying.
Drones pilots cannot fly drones in ‘No Fly Zonesᾠlike airports, international borders.
Drones can be flown in controlled airspace by filing a flight plan and obtaining a unique Air Defense Clearance (ADC)/Flight Information Center (FIC) number.
Drones fall into different categories depending upon their weight.
Nano drones are less than or equal to 250 grams (.55 pounds),micro drones weigh between 250 grams (.55 pounds), and 2kg (4.4 pounds),small drones weighing between 2kg (4.4 pounds) and 25kg (55 pounds).Drones that weigh between 25kg (55 pounds) and 150kg (330 pounds) fall under the medium category while the ones greater than 150 kg i.e.
33 pounds come under the large drones category.
Other than the above-mentioned rules and regulations to fly drones, India has specific requirements regarding the features of the drones that fall in different categories except those in the nano category).
GPS, Return-to-home (RTH), anti-collision light, ID plate, flight controller with flight data logging capability, and RF-ID and SIM/No Permission No Takeoff (NPNT) are the mandatory features that a drone must include to qualify for being flown
who is a professor of Aerospace Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology Madras is the co-founder of the company.
Curious to get the information from the person who is working in the same field and shall be well versed with the rules and regulations for flying drones, we had a word with Mr.
Chakravarthy.
Giving valuable insight on the same, he said:
to gear up for future Transportation systems.
As far as drone insurance is concerned, if you are flying a drone for recreational purposes, it is not important to get the insurance done though it is highly recommended.
If your drone accidentally causes damage to the property or physical harm, the injured party can hold you liable for which you can be charged a hefty amount.
Wrapping it up, it can be said that, if you earn money with your drone, you must comply with the rules for commercial use of drones and get the necessary licenses.
Abiding by the rules and regulations, any drone enthusiast can fly the drone and get the purpose solved.
If you don’t follow the rules, you can be given a warning or a fine; quite possible that your drone might get confiscated.
The amount of the fine or the type of penalty depends on the nature of the offense.
If you break one of the rules, you may be asked to pay the penalty either in the form of a fine or your drone might be confiscated.
interview/murali-srinivasa-ceo-lion-circuits-how-pcb-fabrication-services-set-for-improving-electronics-manufacturing-ecosystem-india
Murali Srinivasa, CEO of Lion Circuits on how their PCB Fabrications Services are set to Improve the Electronics Manufacturing Eco-system in India
Started in 2017, Lion Circuits aims to support PCB manufacturing from Prototype to Production, today you can use Lion Circuits forPCB fabrication,PCB assembly and even for component sourcing.
To get a better understanding of the company and know how the entire process works, how affordable, faster, and reliable manufacturing service from Lion Circuits makes electronic manufacturing easy and seamless, we sat down with the CEO of the company, Mr.
Murali, and asked him a few questions.
It was an interesting and inquisitive session.
Curious to know what all Lion Circuits have in store for all your electronic manufactures, hobbyists, and makers? Scroll down to read.
It’s been an amazing journey with Lion Circuits.
While working with Texas Instruments in Bay Area, I had to travel to different countries for visiting different factories all around the world, and when we started seeing those factories, and how they operate and compared the same with how Indian factories are operated.
We did some market research and found out that there are a lot of gaps in the Indian manufacturing electronics ecosystem.
Thereafter, we launched the experimental website back in July 2016.
I quit my job in the valley and moved back to India to do this full time.
We had enough confidence that this is a problem to solve.
We started operations in India in 2017.
It took about one year for us to have the factory up and running.
In parallel, we built our different platform automation for making it easier for customers to order on our platform.
That's how we began Lion Circuits.
After an order is placed on the platform, the very first step of the fabrication process i.e, the drilling takes place.
After all the pre-engineering work is done, the circuit boards in the copper-clad are cut.
Once, the board cutting happens, it goes to various stages.
There are about 15 to 20 different stages for two-layer and then a few additional steps for a multi-layer board.
It’s a very high level of drilling that takes place after which it goes through various photo etching stages.
Thereafter, it goes through masking electrical testing on a flame protester, and then goes to a routing stage where it is automatically routed for different operating units, and then packing, inspection, and shipping is done.
This is just for circuit board manufacturing.
Once the bare boards are manufactured, if a customer has also ordered for assembly, we sort bare board shipping and assembly processes, and then it goes to the assembly stage.
In the assembly stage, depending on whether it's proto units or production volumes, depending on the process that is chosen by the customer (manual or automatic); we segregate the boards and then pick the place and the manual scrolling takes place.
Once the scrolling is done, we have our own AI-based optical inspection machine that we have developed.
It goes through those inspection processes and finally, the shipment is done.
So that's the typical process before we ship the boards.
We had to go to the factories in the UK to iron out some of the machinery, put them in the container, and bring them to India.
We had to deal with the custom record issues at the Chennai port.
It was a kind of adventurous journey to finalize some of these machines and getting it landed and safely getting these machines onto the factory floor was a challenge.
Doing that first time without any background in this field was a major challenge.
But I think our mission was just to make sure that all the fabrication and electronic manufacturing related issues are solved in India.
Even today, it’s a bit challenging task to import machines to India as it involves a lot of processes that could be solved from a customs standpoint.
We are glad to have done that early and have that learning on what are the different challenges one has to face on importing such machines.
A thought that always bothers us is as to why we have to import machinery from somewhere else and not manufacture the same in India.
The ecosystem for equipment manufacturing in India is not avoidable, and it's high time that we work on it.
And that is one larger ecosystem of fabrication assembly.
In general, turnkey manufacturing will also have a huge boost in the Indian economy only by building the entire ecosystem, and we at Lion Circuits are also working on some of these ecosystem development activities and we will be releasing some of these design challenges and activities in the coming quarters.
There are skill sets available in India, but it's extremely minimal.
Only a few people know about how to use these machines.
In my initial days, I went to the factories in the UK to get hands-on the working ofthese machinery.
We hire people and train them to use these machinery efficiently.
Sometimes, if there is a problem, I don't shy away from debugging the machine myself.
So, initially, we did face some challenges but we have improved a lot over time as we have learned how to hire freshers and up-skill them to use these machines.
We don't hire any new experienced operators.We hire a fresher with a diploma.
Some of the operators in our company are not even diploma holders but because there is a lot of automation involved, it's not challenging, once you know what to do.
At Lion Circuits, we are currently handling up to 12 layers of prototyping.
For production, we do from 2 to 6 layers in terms of production capacity.
Over time, we have built a very unique platform in India, wherein we have now partnered very closely with some of the larger factories on our distributed manufacturing model and we are scaling up now.
So, you'll see a lot of announcements coming from us later this year.
We are already manufacturing more than 150 to 200 square meters per month, and we are moving upwards.
Our production capacity primarily depends on how well we can integrate other partners.
Currently, we are doing about 200 to 300 square meters.
Quality inspection is a very important step and the electrical inspection is done on the flying probe testers.
However, we have built our own AOI (Automated Optical Inspection) machines, which are machine learning-enabled to do a lot of inner layer inspections, post assembly inspections, and post-fabrication inspections, in terms of visual inspections, which helps in accelerating the timelines.
We have a typical AOI machine but the challenging part is that it's super expensive and has to be imported.
However, using some of the new techniques that machine learning has enabled, we can bring down the cost of these machines by kind of building it from scratch.
It took some time, but our consistent efforts throughout the process have given us good results.
Also, we are investing more in developing new algorithms to have these machines do much more inspections by kind of improving the software.
Typically when you are doing inner layer inspection, if you have to build a multi-layer board, once you are done with the bonding, even if you do the electrical inspection, it's of no use.
So, if there is an open circuit, you just throw the board out.
Instead what we do is before the lamination or before the bonding is done, we do inner layer inspection and typically, you would do something like open detection, shot detection, so that you are sure that there are no electrical problems in the inner layers before the bonding is done.
A typical AOI machine would do open and short detection and highlight the areas where you will have to take care of or maybe if there is a possibility to correct it before the bonding is done.
That's exactly the segment we started with.
Manufacturing revolves around three pillars - quality, price, and timelines.
These are the founding blocks of manufacturing and these are completely skewed in India from a global manufacturing standpoint, which is a huge concern.
That's one of the main reasons why we started Lion Circuits.
So, part of the different process automation that we do is to see and evaluate how we can reduce the price overall from a process standpoint, and still keep the timeline and quality.
Recently, we launched a new service called ‘Make in Indiaᾮ Even in terms of price, we have disrupted their mood away and aligned it to our global competitors.
In terms of the timeline, we are working on it, that's the next variable that you will see some disruption in the coming time.
But Lion Circuits is positioned in a way and the platform is developed in a way that we can scale and compete with this globally, especially some of the Southeast Asian countries from a cost and the time for small volume or quick turnaround point of view.
When we started, we focused on fabrication but soon we realized that there are problems in assembling and sourcing as well.
Primarily, it's a one-stop destination.
As a user, you come to the platform, upload the bill of materials, upload the Gerber files, and then you get fabrication quotes instantly in real-time.
We have launched a new tool that gives the user the knowledge about the best available option for sourcing this 'bill of materialsᾠfrom reliable vendors.
We do not currently stock any components in house.
We enable component purchases through reliable distributors with worldwide warehouses like Digi key, Mouser, Element 14, and Arrow.
We identify what is the best available price and stock in-stock quantity for a given bill of materials.
The ability to do this faster transforms the design engineers' timeline.
Time saved is money saved!
With these tools, we are working towards shortening the cycle of component sourcing.
This is one dashboard where an engineer knows what is the state of fabrication, what is the status of assembly, component sourcing status, etc.
To move faster in the product development cycle, you need to have more realistic timelines, know what's the total turnaround time for your electronic manufacturing, rather than kind of micromanaging stuff in terms of fabrication, assembly, and component sourcing.
We are working towards making the process speedier, cheaper, and reliable in a way that the entire turnaround of turnkey manufacturing can happen very quickly.
Right now, we don’t have any official partnership as such withthese distributors.
Primarily, anybody who has regular business with these distributors could integrate their API's and source components.
So it's a pretty open engagement.
However, we have carefully chosen some of the distributors and with the history of working with them in the past 3-4 years and I'm also looking forward in terms of future roadmaps.
We are adding a lot more distributors to the network and we are not limiting ourselves to these four to five distributors currently.
We want to add more Indian electronic component manufacturers on board and we are working on that aspect so that we can source at least most of the components locally.
There is no warehouse in India currently, which is a big problem for semiconductor sourcing.
However, for discrete and electromechanical components, there are a lot of good manufacturers in India and we want to onboard them going forward.
There is a lot of debate currently going on in terms of silicon manufacturing in India.
It is very much needed and we are yet not there.
The only few facts that I know of are presenting BHEL and a very old process.
There was however a lot of effort to set up factories in the northern northeastern part of India, but that failed.
We are hoping for some major reforms in this area and the government of India has already announced a microprocessor challenge.
Let's see how that goes and I think that will have some positive results from the ecosystem development point of view.
To completely reimagine electronic manufacturing, India needs completely fresh thinking like how can some of the grass-root problems be solved, how FAB can be set up, etc.
Setting up fab is a completely different challenge.
Having worked for Texas Instruments and working closely with some of the FABs within TI, I can say that some of the real advantages that India has in terms of setting up a fab will be if India can focus more on new processes right or upcoming processes like gallium nitride GaN, something in the MEMS area.
MEMS area is also slightly outdated now, in terms of getting started in that space, but I think the GaN process is an area that we can focus on.
Also, there are a lot of custom analog processes, not the ones that you can have from the TSMC point of view, where you have 15 or 16 nanometers.
Under the recent announcements of TSMC, they are way advanced than the rest of the world.
But, India can carve a very niche area and enter the fab space and then kind of later expand.
When we set up a fabrication plant, the obvious thing is a huge investment and stuff, but what is the value proposition that India could offer with respect to all other countries and already existing FABs.
When you think about it, and with the growing ICs being designed in the GaN process, it becomes a very good use case from an investment point of view from an Indian standpoint, and that will also help in all the other value chain that is kind of vertically integrated into a fab development.
So, when you kind of start implementing a fab, then there is a lot of design toolchainthat ecosystem built.
There is already a good amount of design toolchain in India from a software standpoint, but also a hardware standpoint, from an equipment development standpoint, from an R&D, from a process development standpoint, etc.
So, there are a lot of complex processes that are involved.
So, starting with the fabrication process, here in India, we lack a lot of highly complex process engineering from a chemical engineering standpoint for PCB fabrication.
Having fab and seeing more money into the sector would make the entire chemical process lithography and all the other processes that are evolved to evolve.
We have already launched a new plan called ‘Make in Indiaᾠplan where we are giving our boards at $15 for 10 units.
So, a landed cost of some of these South Asian countries operating from South Asian countries and shipping to India would make the landed costs reach almost $20 to $30 for one board.
So we are matching those landed prices and on the higher side, we are close to matching those landed prices.
Going forward, you will see a lot of disruption from Lion Circuits in terms of timelines and on the cost side as well.
These competitions are the high time we limit the price reduction and quicker turnaround to match those prices in India.
That goes all the way from raw materials to kind of finish.
But we are making good progress.
We have shipped a hundred thousand plus PCBs to 10+ countries worldwide and we are growing fast with each passing month.
We have big targets for the year.
COVID happened and there are a lot of challenges still we are anticipating a strong ending of this year.
We at Lion Circuits want to support the hardware and maker community by giving them access to low-cost high-quality manufacturing so that innovations from India can happen.
Our Make in India campaign is aligned for these services.
However, some of the enterprise offerings we have for turnkey manufacturing on our platform go all the way to defense, we are an approved vendor to DRDO and we make IPC Class-III PCBs as well and we are growing that space.
We have a lot of ecosystem development activities going on and the constant effort is to bring down the cost, accelerate the timeline, and improve the quality of services.
We have our own internal goals to push what we are doing to the next level and hence users from across the globe should expect quicker deliveries at the lowest cost from the service standpoint.
We are constantly focusing on improving the manufacturing system in India.
article/esspowering-the-world-with-energy-storage-technology
ESSPOWERING the World With Energy Storage Technology
: there aren’t economically viable batteries available to supplement the existing power grid infrastructure.
Building on our leadership in wired BMS, we have recently developed a groundbreaking wireless BMS (wBMS) technology, that eliminates the need for the battery wire harness.
Wireless battery management systems provide an ideal path for OEMs to scale up the electric vehicle fleets, enabling a flexible and reusable platform that saves costs, while providing data that lead the life of the battery cell modules into their second life.
of our wBMS sensors.
Before a battery is repurposed, the seller can use that data to generate a state-of-health history: how many times did the EV owner completely or partially charge and discharge the battery; was the EV ever in an accident; what do the vehicle’s maintenance records indicate? Such granular health monitoring can also be applied in places where data has been logistically impossible to collect.
In the end, Analog Devices has helped answer two massive, global energy questions with a single, better battery.
It’s now within reach to repurpose EV batteries to store sustainable power in the developing world, a fact that also makes EVs themselves more economically viable.
To us, it’s just another mile marker on our continuing journey to power the breakthroughs that make human life better.
article/how-does-successive-approximation-sar-adc-work-and-where-is-it-best-used
How does Successive Approximation (SAR) ADC Work and Where is it best used?
, you can check that out if you are new to electronics and want to learn more about ADC.
What is a Successive Approximation ADC?
ranges from 8 - 18 bits, with sample speeds up to 5 mega-samples per second (Msps).
Also, it can be constructed in a small form factor with low power consumption, which is why this type of ADC is used for portable battery-powered instruments.
We discuss more about it later in this article.
Working of Successive Approximation ADC
But to understand the working principle a little better, we are going to use a 4-bit version of it.
The image below shows exactly that.
samples the input signal.
And that signal is compared with the specific output signal of the DAC.
, you can check those out for more information.
This means if Vin is greater than the output of the DAC, the most significant bit will stay as it is, and the next bit will be set for a new comparison.
Otherwise, if the input voltage is less than the DAC value, the most significant bit will be set to zero, and the next bit will be set to 1 for a new comparison.
Now if you see the below image, the DAC voltage is 5V and as it is less than the input voltage, the next bit before the most significant bit will set to one, and other bits will set to zero, this process will continue until the value closest to the input voltage reaches.
is shown below.
Conversion Time, Speed, and Resolution of Successive Approximation ADC
In general, we can say that for an N bit ADC, it will take N clock cycles, which means the conversion time of this ADC will become-
Tc = N x Tclk
*Tc is short for Conversion Time.
And unlike other ADCs, the conversion time of this ADC is independent of the input voltage.
As we are using a 4-bit ADC, to avoid aliasing effects, we need to take a sample after 4 consecutive clock pulses.
by Linear Technologies.
by Analog Devices.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Successive Approximation ADC
is its design complexity and cost of production.
Applications of SAR ADC
As this is a most commonly used ADC, it's used for many applications like uses in biomedical devices that can be implanted in the patient, these types of ADCs are used because it consumes very less power.
Also, many smartwatches and sensors used this type of ADC.
In summary, we can say that the primary advantages of this type of ADC are low power consumption, high resolution, small form factor, and accuracy.
This type of character makes it suitable for integrated systems.
The main limitation can be its low sampling rate and the parts required to build this ADC, which is a DAC, and a comparator, both of those should need to work very accurately to obtain an accurate result.
article/ir-decoder-for-multi-speed-ac-motor-control
IR Decoder for Multi-Speed AC Motor Control
Single-phase alternating current motors are typically found in household items such as fans, and their speed can be easily controlled when using several discrete windings for set speeds.
In this article, we build a digital controller that allows users to control functions such as motor speed and operating time.
This article also includes an infrared receiver circuit that supports the NEC protocol, where a motor may be controlled from push buttons or a signal received by an infrared transmitter.
IC is used as a basic controller in charge of these diverse functions: a multiplex circuit to activate one speed (out of three speeds), 3-period countdown timers, and an infrared decoder to receive an external infrared signal, which extracts and executes the desired command.
If we look at the functions of the circuit, we note several discrete functions simultaneously employed: MUXing, timing, and IR decoding.
Manufacturers often use many ICs for building the electronic circuit because of the lack of an available unique solution within a single IC.
The use of a GreenPAK IC enables the manufacturers to employ a single chip for including many of the desired functions and consequently reduce the system cost and oversight of manufacturing.
The system with all its functions has been tested to ensure proper operation.
The final circuit may require special modifications or additional elements tailored to the chosen motor.
To check that the system is operating nominally, test cases for the inputs have been generated with the help of the GreenPAK designer emulator.
The emulation verifies different test cases for the outputs, and the functionality of the IR decoder is confirmed.
The final design is also tested with an actual motor for confirmation.
3-Speed AC Fan Motor
3-speed AC motors are single-phase motors operated by an alternating current.
They’re often used in a wide variety of household machines such as various types of fans (wall fan, table fan, box fan).
Compared to a DC motor, controlling speed in an alternating current motor is relatively complicated since the delivered current's frequency must change to change the motor speed.
Appliances such as fans and refrigeration machines usually do not require fine granularity in speed, but require discrete steps such as low, medium, and high speeds.
For these applications, AC fan motors have several built-in coils designed for several speeds where changing from one speed to another is accomplished by energizing the desired speed's coil.
The motor we use in this project is a 3-speed AC motor that has 5 wires: 3 wires for speed control, 2 wires for power, and a start capacitor as illustrated in Figure 2 below.
Some manufacturers use standard color-coded wires for function identification.
A motor’s datasheet will show the particular motor’s information for wire identification.
Project Analysis
In this article, a GreenPAK IC is configured to execute a given command, received from a source such as an IR transmitter or an external button, to indicate one of three commands:
the system is turned on or turned off with each interpretation of this command.
The state of On/Off will be reversed with each rising edge of the On/Off command.
the timer is operated for 30, 60, and 120 minutes.
At the fourth pulse, the timer is turned off, and the timer period reverts to the original timing state.
Controls the speed of the motor, successively iterating the activated output from the motor’s speed-selection wires (1,2,3).
IR Decoder
An IR decoder circuit is built to receive signals from an external IR transmitter and to activate the desired command.
We adopted the NEC protocol because of its popularity amongst manufacturers.
NEC protocol uses "pulse distance" to encode every bit; each pulse takes 562.5us to be transmitted using the signal of a 38 kHz frequency carrier.
The transmission of a logic 1 signal requires 2.25ms while the transmission of a logic 0 signal takes 1.125ms.
Figure 3 illustrates the pulse train transmission according to the NEC protocol.
It consists of 9ms AGC burst, then 4.5ms space, then the 8-bit address, and finally the 8-bit command.
Note that the address and the command are transmitted twice; the second time is 1's complement (all the bits are inverted) as parity to ensure that the received message is correct.
LSB is transmitted first in the message.
GreenPAK Design
The received message’s relevant bits are extracted over several stages.
To begin, the outset of the message is specified from 9ms AGC burst using CNT2 and 2-bit LUT1.
If this has been detected, 4.5ms space is then specified through CNT6 and 2L2.
If the header is correct, the DFF0 output is set High to allow the reception of the address.
The blocks CNT9, 3L0, 3L3, and P DLY0 are used to extract the clock pulses from the received message.
The bit value is taken at the rising edge of IR_CLK signal, 0.845ms from the rising edge from IR_IN.
The interpreted address is then compared to an address stored within the PGEN using 2LUT0.
2LUT0 is an XOR gate, and the PGEN stores the inverted address.
Each bit of the PGEN is sequentially compared to the incoming signal, and each comparison's result is stored in DFF2 along with the rising edge of IR-CLK.
In case, any error has been detected in the address, the 3-bit LUT5 SR latch output is changed to High to prevent comparing the rest of the message (the command).
If the received address matches the stored address in PGEN, the second half of the message (command & inverted command) is directed to SPI so that the desired command can be read and executed upon.
CNT5 and DFF5 are used to specify the end of the address and start of the command where ‘Counter dataᾠof CNT5 equals 18:16 pulses for the address in addition to the first two pulses (9ms, 4.5ms).
If the full address, including header, has been correctly received and stored in the IC (in PGEN), the 3L3 OR Gate output gives the signal Low to SPI's nCSB pin to be activated.
The SPI consequently begins to receive the command.
The SLG46620 IC has 4 internal registers of 8-bit length and it is thus possible to store four different commands.
DCMP1 is used to compare the received command to the internal registers and a 2-bit binary counter is designed whose A1A0 outputs are connected to MTRX SEL # 0 and # 1 of DCMP1 to compare the received command to all the registers successively and continuously.
, this activates 2L5, and DFF6 consequently outputs a High signal indicating that the signal On/Off has been received.
Similarly, for the rest of the control signals, CNT7 and CNT8 are configured as 'Both Edge Delay' to generate a time delay and allow the DCMP1 to change the state of its output before the value of output is held by the DFFs.
The value of the On/Off command is stored in register 3, the timer command in register 2, and the speed command in register 1.
Speed MUX
, and by applying a pulse on the input of the counter from 3-bit LUT6, Q1Q0 successively becomes 10, 01, and then the 00 state.
3-bit LUT7 was used to skip the 00 states, given that only three speeds are available in the chosen motor.
The On/Off signal must be High to activate the control process.
Consequently, if the On/Off signal is Low, the activated output is disabled and the motor is switched off as shown in Figure 6.
Timer
, the Timer is disabled.
After that, by applying a pulse on the input CK for Pipe Delay1, the output state changes to 11,01,00 in succession, inverting the CNT/DLY to every activated state.
CNT0, CNT3, CNT4 were configured to operate as 'Rising Edge Delays' whose input originates from the output of CNT1, which is configured to give a pulse every 10 seconds.
To have a time delay of 30 minutes:
30 x 60 = 1800 seconds ÷ 10second intervals = 180 bits
Therefore, Counter Data for CNT4 is 180, CNT3 is 360, and CNT0 is 720.
Once the time delay has finished, a High pulse is transmitted through 3L14 to 3L11 causing the system to turn off.
The timers are reset if the system is turned off by the external button connected to Pin12 or by the IR_ON/OFF signal.
*You can use a triac or solid-state relay instead of an electromechanical relay if you would like to use an electronic switch.
* A hardware debouncer (capacitor, resistor) was used for the push-buttons.
Results
As the first step in the evaluation of the design, the GreenPAK Software Simulator was used.
Virtual buttons were created on the inputs and the external LEDs opposite to the outputs on the development board were monitored.
The Signal Wizard tool was used to generate a signal similar to NEC Format for the sake of debugging.
A signal with the pattern 0x00FF5FA0 was generated, where 0x00FF is the address corresponding to the inverted address stored in the PGEN, and 0x5FA0 is the command corresponding to the inverted command in DCMP register 3 to control the On/Off functionality.
The system in the initial state is in the OFF state, but after the signal is applied, we note that the system turns ON.
If a single bit has been changed in the address and the signal was reapplied, we note nothing happens (incompatible address).
After starting the Signal Wizard for one time (with valid On/Off command):
Conclusion
This article concentrates on the configuration of a GreenPAK IC designed to control a 3-speed AC Motor.
It incorporates several functions such as cycling speeds, generating a 3-period timer, and constructing an IR decoder compatible with the NEC protocol.
The GreenPAK has demonstrated effectiveness at integrating several functions, all in a low cost and small area IC solution.
article/comparision-between-cmos-vs-ttl-logic-which-is-better-and-why
Comparison between CMOS and TTL Logic - Which is Better and Why?
It might be surprising to know that the patent for a ‘field effect transistorᾠpredated the creation of the bipolar transistor by at least twenty years.
However, bipolar transistors were quicker to catch on commercially, with the first chip made of bipolar transistors appearing in the 1960s, with MOSFET manufacturing technology being perfected in the 1980s and soon overtaking their bipolar cousins.
After the point contact transistor was invented in 1947, things began to move quickly.
First came the invention of the first bipolar transistor in the following year.
Then in 1958, Jack Kilby came up with the first integrated circuit which put more than one transistor on the same die.
Eleven years later, Apollo 11 landed on the Moon, thanks to the revolutionary Apollo Guidance Computer, which was the world’s first embedded computer.
It was made using primitive dual three-input NOR gate ICs, which consisted of merely 3 transistors per gate.
This gave rise to the popular TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic) series of logic chips, which were constructed using bipolar transistors.
These chips ran off 5V and could run at speeds up to 25MHz.
These soon gave way to Schottky clamped transistor logic, which added a Schottky diode across the base and collector to prevent saturation, which greatly reduced storage charge and decreased switching times, which in turn decreased the propagation delay caused by the storage charge.
series which ran on negative voltages, essentially operating ‘backwardsᾠcompared to their standard TTL counterparts ECL could run up to 500MHz.
logic was introduced.
It used both N-channel and P-channel devices, hence the name complementary.
TTLVSCMOS: Advantages and Disadvantages
than CMOS.
This is true in the sense that a TTL input is just the base of a bipolar transistor, which needs some current to turn it on.
The magnitude of input current depends on the circuitry inside, sinking up to 1.6mA.
This becomes a problem when many TTL inputs are connected to one TTL output, which is usually just a pullup resistor or a rather poorly driven high-side transistor.
On the other hand, CMOS transistors are field-effect, in other words, the presence of an electric field at the gate is enough to influence the semiconductor channel into conduction.
In theory, no current is drawn, except for the small leakage current of the gate, which is often in the order of pico- or nanoamps.
However, this is not to say that the same low current consumption is true even for higher speeds.
The input of a CMOS chip has some capacitance, and therefore a finite rise time.
To make sure the rise time is fast at high frequency, a large current is needed, which can be in the order of several amps at MHz or GHz frequencies.
This current is consumed only when the input has to change state, unlike TTL where the bias current has to be present with the signal.
When it comes to outputs, CMOS and TTL have their own advantages and disadvantages.
TTL outputs are either totem pole or pullups.
With totem pole, the output can swing only within 0.5V of the rails.
However, the output currents are much higher than their CMOS counterparts.
Meanwhile, CMOS outputs, which can be compared with voltage controlled resistors, can output within millivolts of the supply rails depending on the load.
However, the output currents are limited, often being barely enough to drive a couple of LEDs.
area without the current requirement being impractically high.
Field-effect transistors depend on a thin silicon oxide layer between the gate and channel to provide isolation between them.
This oxide layer is nanometers thick and has a very small breakdown voltage, rarely exceeding 20V even in high power FETs.
This makes CMOS very susceptible to electrostatic discharge and overvoltage.
If the inputs are left floating, they slowly accumulate charge and cause spurious output state changes, which is why CMOS inputs are usually pulled up, down, or grounded.
TTL does not suffer this problem for the most part since the input is a transistor base, which acts more like a diode and is less sensitive to noise because of its lower impedance.
TTL OR CMOS? Which is Better?
CMOS logic has superseded TTL in almost every way.
Though TTL chips are still available, there is no real advantage in using them.
However, TTL input levels are somewhat standardized and many logic inputs still say ‘TTL compatibleᾬ so having a CMOS driving a TTL output stage for compatibility is not uncommon.
Overall CMOS is the clear winner when it comes to utility.
CMOS generally consumes much less power, despite being more sensitive than TTL.
CMOS and TTL are not really interchangeable, and with the availability of low power CMOS chips, TTL use in modern designs is rare.
interview/moin-spm-co-founder-and-coo-of-agnikul-shares-how-they-are-building-indias-first-private-smallsat-rocket
Moin SPM, Co-Founder and COO of Agnikul Shares How They are Building India’s First Private Smallsat Rocket
led by Moin SPM and Srinath Ravichandran is aiming to enable space accessible to everyone.
orbits up to 700 km with a plug-and-play engine configuration.
Sounds exciting, isn’t it?
We got the opportunity to hear about the company, the team that’s working day in and day out to ensure the successful launch of the first commercial rocket, and more from Moin SPM who is the Co-Founder & COO at AgniKul Cosmos.
He talked about the technical aspects, challenges faced in the manufacturing, supply chain, and testing phases.
So,let’s begin!
Agnikul Cosmos was founded by us on the idea that getting to space should not be the hardest part of being a space-faring species.
We wanted to enable quick & affordable space access through our launch-on-demand vehicle, Agnibaan.
We also saw there was a paradigm shift across all markets.
In the last three decades, we have seen the IT industry, biotechnology, robotics all of these industries taking shape.
Likewise, there was an opportunity for the space industry to position itself.
With respect to the space industry, it was only a government mandate to look at the space end of things.
But we saw a change in the Western Hemisphere where SpaceX was trying to democratize space; and thus privatization of space started to happen across the globe.
This was also one of the factors that persuaded us to start the Agnikul Cosmos.
The problem statement we saw was the satellites were shrinking and there was a demand for the rocket that could accommodate the shrinkage of satellites.
But we saw the world focussing on bigger rockets.
Previously, there used to be a kind of a big satellite that was used to be positioned at an orbit.
But today, the market is progressing towards the constellation of satellites.
This helped in diversifying their risk.
This gave us an opportunity to think to meet this demand.
We needed a rocket that could accommodate these sizes and types of payload.
That is where we identified the need for a rocket such as this!
in Sanskrit means ‘rocketᾮ To reduce the complexities and cost of our vehicle, we incorporated multiple technologies that are available in today's world.
For example, additive manufacturing (3D printing) plays a key role in our strategy.
The rocket is also scalable so we would build the vehicle accordingly to the payload itself.
There are multiple ways in which we are trying to reduce the cost of the vehicle itself.
Instead of using expensive IMUs, we have had another option that could lead to a reduction in cost.
India has been a space-faring nation for nearly 50 years this has already developed the vendor ecosystem.
This gives an edge in saving costs instead of importing.
There are companies that are building systems and subsystems from India.
They have already proven credibility by flying their components into space.
Some of our designs are done in house and we ask the vendors to manufacture those subsystems /components.
The design cost is completely borne by us.
So the cost drastically reduces.
Both are semi cryogenic engines.
The USP lies in the fact that we manufacture these engines through additive manufacturing in a single piece.
There are other companies as well that are focusing on 3d printing, but they are building in multiple parts, and they are trying to fuse them in one block.
Our engine is different in such a way that the entire rocket engine is built one single piece.
We go with the concept of modular design where we can print the same engines.
Our Engines are going to be 3D printed.
In the future, we are also planning to have reusability, so our production rate might be different.
We have a modular design that will enable us to make the launch in two weeks.
So the entire additive manufacturing time taken to produce one engine is less than 72 hours for us in one printer.
We would be trying to automate the entire production process in such a way that we will be able to launch a vehicle every two weeks.
R&D has charm but it has difficulties too.
Newer technologies however are proving helpful for us to solve the problem of developmental cost as well as time.
For example, if we had to develop the same engine through conventional manufacturing, just the manufacturing itself would take around three months.
The beauty is the time and the opportunity that additive manufacturing has given us in such a way that we’ve to reduce development time as much as possible and it gives us an opportunity to get the desired number of iterations.
Also, here we have an opportunity to print or scrap it and then print it again if the iteration is not successful.
This helps in the reduction of the development cost.
Likewise, in avionics, we might not build a complete product initially, but we would test smaller kits and then scale up.
is one of the technological advancements that has been made in rocket science.
Currently, This is where our time is completely dedicated to.
We are using a motor that will drive the pump to push the propellants inside the engine.
There is also an advantage once you’ve mastered the liquid engines, you could also use them for a longer time which could be used for our future missions.
It has multiple components like motor, drives, battery and other things that need to align.
Everything needs to be tested, and each component should have the reliability of itself, and then all have to be integrated to make a successful vehicle to fly.
We faced some challenges initially but things are changing for the better.
Initially, the general industrial market we were looking for was not accommodating the space industry because of our expectations of precision and tolerances.
But now people have started to accept the space industry, the opportunities and have understood that space could be a platform for other applications.
for the world.
That is exactly what we are targeting, being the first player specifically for the launch vehicles in India.
The technical difficulties were addressed as we were working within IIT Madras.
We work out of the National Center of Combustion Research and Development.
Having access to such academic institutions' ecosystems have actually proved helpful for us.
Being a startup to afford such a huge infrastructure and doing this would have been really impossible.
We see a lot of growth in the space ecosystem.
When we started, there were four or five companies in the space industry, and today, there are approximately more than 20.
So this is giving us a boost about how things are happening.
Many industries will be using space as a platform.
There are pharmaceutical companies that are thinking about doing microgravity research for protein crystallization Likewise, there is another unconventional company that is interested in creating Fake Meteor Showers creating an effect of fireworks.
Similarly, some companies keep data in space because storing data on the ground requires a lot of cooling infrastructure.
This is free in space and the major expenditure is covered.
We see multiple industries trying to utilize space which is a good sign and there is the conventional space side of communications and Remote sensing.
The big satellites have been broken down into small satellites and are formed as constellations.
Considering all of these things, we can see a market that is currently trying to grow.
We are also seeing space travel trying to become a reality and there are a lot of companies that are working towards this.
Space exploration has been happening, where companies are trying to explore Mars and other planets as well.
So we don't see this industry being saturated in the next for at least a couple of decades.
It is a technological advancement for every country and is still growing.
The fundamental thing that we require or we look for in people is - passion.
If they have a passion they will create a mark for themselves.
The fundamental part of building a rocket is integration.
So we have a saying, it is not about being the world’s best aerodynamics engineer or the world's best propulsion engineer.
Instead, you should be able to integrate your part with the other departments of rocket building.
The person we look for should be capable of integrating with others.
We have a strength of around 60 people.
The range is of people being post-doctorates to diploma levels.
It’s a kind of mixed team.
Even age-wise, we have people who are as young as 21 years to people of age around 45 years.
The team comprises people from different corners of the world but Indians who we think are best at integration.
Multiple engine tests have been done, the architecture has been frozen on the electronic side.
The tanks for propellant storage have been tested for pressure and cryogenic temperatures.
The first commercial flight would be in the latter part of 2022 and we would have a developmental flight before.
article/all-about-transformer-protection-and-transformer-protection-circuits
All About Transformer Protection and Transformer Protection Circuits
becomes very crucial.
to understand the basics of it.
Basic protection features like overexcitation protection and temperature-based protection can recognize conditions that eventually lead to a failure condition, but complete transformer protection provided by relays and current transformers are appropriate for transformers in critical applications.
from catastrophic failures.
Transformer Protection for Different Types of Transformers
The protection system used for a power transformer depends on the transformer's categories.
A table below shows that,
Category
Transformer Rating - KVA
1 Phase
3 Phase
I
5 - 500
15 - 500
II
501 - 1667
501 - 5000
III
1668 - 10,000
5001 - 30,000
IV
> 10,000
>30,000
Transformers within the range of 500 KVA fall under (Category I & II), so those are protected using fuses, but to protect transformers up to 1000 kVA (distribution transformers for 11kV and 33kV) Medium Voltage circuit breakers are usually used.
For transformers 10 MVA and above, which falls under (Category III & IV), differential relays had to be used to protect them.
are widely applied for transformer protection.
In addition to these relays, thermal overload protection is often implemented to extend a transformer’s lifetime rather than for detecting faults.
Transformers overheat due to the overloads and short circuit conditions.
The allowable overload and the corresponding duration are dependent on the type of transformer and class of insulation used for the transformer.
The temperature in the oil-cooled transformer is considered maximum when its 95*C, beyond which the life expectancy of the transformer decreases and it has detrimental effects in the insulation of the wire.
That is why overheating protection becomes essential.
used to measure the temperature of a liquid insulated conservative type of transformer.
If the black needle surpasses the red needle, the device will activate an alarm.
are used within the low voltage winding to accurately measure the temperature of the transformer.
That is how overheating protection is implemented.
Overcurrent Protection in Transformer
The overcurrent protection system is one of the earliest developed protection systems out there, the graded overcurrent system was developed to guard against overcurrent conditions.
power distributors utilize this method to detect faults with the help of the IDMT relays.
that is, the relays having:
Inverse characteristic, and
Minimum time of operation.
The capabilities of the IDMT relay is restricted.
These sorts of relays have to be set 150% to 200% of the max rated current, otherwise, the relays will operate for emergency overload conditions.
Therefore, these relays provide minor protection for faults inside the transformer tank.
Differential Protection of Transformer
that provide the best overall protection.
These types of protection are used for transformers of rating exceeding 2 MVA.
The transformer is star connected on one side and delta connected the other side.
The CTs on the star side are delta-connected and those on the delta-connected side are star-connected.
The neutral of both the transformers are grounded.
As the name implies, the restraining-coil is used to produce the restraining force, and the operating-coil is used to produce the operating force.
The restraining-coil is connected with the secondary winding of the current transformers, and the operating coil is connected in between the equipotential point of the CT.
start producing differential current among the two sides of the transformer.
Thus, the relay trips the circuit breakers and protects the main transformer.
Restricted Earth Fault Protection
earth fault protection relay.
will be there, and that will circulate only on the secondary side.
And it will not be reflected in the primary side of the transformer.
Because the positive sequins components are displaced by 120*, so at any instant, the sum of all the currents will flow through the protection relay.
So, the sum of their currents will be equal to zero, as they are displaced by 120*.
Similar is the case for the negative sequence components.
Now let us assume a fault condition occurs.
That fault will be detected by the CTs as it has a zero-sequence component and the current starts flowing through the protection relay, when that happens, the relay will trip and protect the transformer.
Buchholz (Gas Detection) Relay
is fitted in between the main transformer unit and the conservator tank when a fault occurs within the transformer, it detects the resolved gas with the help of a float switch.
If you look closely, you can see an arrow, gas flows out from the main tank to the conservator tank, normally there should not be any gas in the transformer itself.
Most of the gas is referred to as dissolved gas and nine different types of gasses can be produced depending on the fault condition.
There are two valves at the top of this relay, these valves are used to reduce the gas build-up, and it's also used to take out a gas sample.
When a fault condition occurs, we have sparks between the windings, or in between windings and the core.
These small electrical discharges in the windings will heat the insulating oil, and the oil will break down, thus it produces gases, the severity of the breakdown, detects which glasses are created.
A large energy discharge will have a production of acetylene, and as you may know, acetylene takes a lot of energy to be produced.
And you should always remember that any type of fault will produce gases, by analyzing the amount of gas, we can find the severity of the fault.
As you can see from the image, we have two floats: an upper float and a lower float, also we have a baffle plate that is pushing down the lower float.
When a large electrical fault occurs, it produces a lot of gas than the gas flows through the pipe, which shifts the baffle plate and that forces the lower floated down, now we have a combination, the upper float is up and the lower float is down and the baffle plate has tilted.
This combination indicates that a massive fault has occurred.
which shuts down the transformer and it also generates an alarm.
The image below shows exactly that,
that is happening, these arks are producing a small amount of gas, this gas produces a pressure inside the relay and the upper float gets down displacing the oil inside it, now the relay generates an alarm in this situation, the upper float is down, the lower float is unchanged and the baffle plate is unchanged if this configuration is detected, we can be sure that we have a slow accumulation of gas.
The image below shows exactly that,
Now we know we have a fault, and we will bleed out some of the gas using the valve above the relay and analyze the gas to find out the exact reason for this gas build-up.
This relay can also detect conditions where the insulating oil level falls due to leaks in the transformer chassis, in that condition, the upper float drops, the lower float drops, and the baffle plate stays in the same position.
In this condition, we get a different alarm.
The below image shows the working.
With these three methods, the Buchholz relay detects faults.
Over-fluxing Protection
A transformer is designed to operate at a fixed flux level exceed that flux level and the core gets saturated, the saturation of the core causes heating in the core that quickly follows through the other parts of the transformer that leads to overheating of components, thus over flux protection becomes necessary, as it protects the transformer core.
Over-flux situations can occur because of overvoltage or a reduction in system frequency.
is used.
The over-fluxing relay measures the ratio of Voltage / Frequency to calculate the flux density in the core.
A rapid increase in the voltage due to transients in the power system can cause over fluxing but transients die down fast, therefore, the instantaneous tripping of the transformer is undesirable.
).
But the setting can be done manually if that is a requirement.
In this way, the purpose will be served without compromising the over-flux protections.
Now, we see how important it is to prevent the tripping of the transformer from over-fluxing.
for other technical queries.
article/a-glimpse-into-the-types-of-drones-available-today-based-on-their-technology-and-applications
A Glimpse into the Types of Drones Available Today Based on their Technology and Application
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) popularly known as drones that were originally designed for military and aerospace industries have come a long way and have found applications across various sectors like agriculture, infrastructure, transport and delivery, media, telecommunication, security, etc.
The enhanced level of safety and efficiency that they offer are leaving a positive impact on market growth.
Adding to this, various technologies like RADAR/LiDar, wireless communication, GNSS, satellite communications, and GPS are contributing their bit to make drones all the more popular.
Airbus S.A.S, DJI, 3DR, YUNEEC, Kespry, EHANG, Boeing, Delair, AguaDrone, Autel Robotics USA, etc.
are some of the companies that are manufacturing UAVs.
The drone market is gaining traction at a high pace.
In the year 2018, the global commercial drones market was valued at about $3.45 billion and is expected to grow to $7.13 billion at a CAGR of 19.9% through 2022.
However, due to the economic slowdown across the countries owing to the COVID-19 outbreak, there has been a decline in the growth rate of the global commercial drones market.
There are hopes that the growth in market size will be about $6.15 billion in 2023 at CAGR of 19.09%.
The different levels of autonomy and capability of traveling at varying heights and distances are what make one drone different from the other.
Talking about the level of autonomy, there are remotely piloted drones with human beings controlling the movements.
Besides, there are drones with advanced autonomy (with a system of sensors andLIDAR detectors that help in calculating the movement).
Also, different drones are capable of traveling at different heights and distances.
These can be categorized as:
Very close-range drones that travel up to three miles.
Close-range drones that can travel within the range of around 30 miles.
Short-range drones that can travel up to 90 miles
Mid-range drones that can travel 400-miles
Longest-range drones that can go beyond the 400-mile range and up to 3,000 feet in the air.
These drones are also known as endurance drones.
Types of Drones
Other than these, there are small drones, micro drones, tactical drones, large combat drones, target and decoy drones, reconnaissance drones, non-combat large drones racing drones, photography drones, GPS drones, etc.
Hereᾠwe are going to discuss some of the drones along with their applications.
are used for aerial shots for tasks like real estate marketing, collecting data for insurance-related inspections, etc.
These drones vary in price range depending upon the tasks for which these are designed (like aerial photography, high-quality aerial photography, television, and movie production, mapping, and surveying).
They start somewhere from $ 300 and go up to $25000.
Other than these, the drones can be classified based on their design (multi-rotor drones, fixed-wing drones).
Listed below are four types of drones based on their design.
and there are chances of accidental injuries.
Moreover, these types of drones are often not stable and are difficult to fly as compared to multiple rotor drones that fly in a balanced and stable manner.
The price range of these drones is around $25k to $300k.
A multi-rotor drone is a rotorcraft that has more than two lift-generating rotors positioned at strategic points on the craft.
Unlike single and double rotor helicopters that use complex variable pitch rotors for flight stability and control, multi-rotor drones use fixed-pitch blades that make it easier for it to maintain its balance and keep hovering.
By varying the relative speed of each rotor, the thrust and torque produced can be changed, thereby controlling vehicle motion.
and the balance is disrupted if done so.
Besides, they have limited endurance and speed, which makes them unsuitable for large scale aerial mapping.
Also, to fight gravity and keep flying in the air, it takes a lot of energy.
Freefly Alta 8, U49WF FPV Camera DroneYuneec H520, DJI Inspire 2, etc.
are the drones that fall into this category.
There is a variety of options available with prices ranging from around $5k to $65k.
like the other type of helicopter-style drones.
As there is no rotor, these types of drones are difficult to land.
Zipline is a medical drone delivery company that is using a fixed-wing drone for delivering blood and other medical supplies to remote areas.
senseFly eBee Classic, Parrot Disco, Hubsan Spy Hawk, etc.
are some of the fixed-wing drones.
The price range of these drones is somewhere from $25k to $120k.
The price tag these drones come with is another major drawback and the other one being the level of difficulty one faces to operate them.
prototypes in Dubai.
and asked him about the different types of drones the company manufactures, to which he said:
(PDRL), Drone Technology Company.
PDRL is recognized under the Start-Up India initiative by the Government of India’s Department of Industrial Policy & Promotion, and it’s a Golden Award at the International Automation Expo 2019 awardee.
Providing insights about the products and services the company offers, Mr.
Saurabh said:
Types of Drones based on Application Areas
The types of drones also vary depending upon the specific purpose for which it is designed.
From agriculture to defense, insurance, construction, and mining, drones are proving beneficial in varied sectors.
previously.
Drones are being used to ensure the safety of workers, timely inspections and avoiding mishaps, etc.
Harshwardhansinh Zala, a young teenage boy developed a drone named EAGEL A7 that is capable of detecting and detonating landmines.
The drone can detect explosive devices, track their location, and detonate them with our wireless detonator, averting any human risk.
Parrot Bluegrass is a fine example of a drone designed for agricultural purposes as it can detect problem areas in different types of crop fields.
Bebop-Pro Thermal is a drone that is designed specifically for firefighting.
The drone has FLIR One Pro thermal imaging camera that helps it in thermal imaging.
Elios 2 by Flyability is a drone that is apt for indoor inspection.
It has a unique and application-specific design that makes it ideal for inspecting tight, hard-to-reach spaces.
Insurance firms are leveraging drone technology to provide faster and accurate property assessments.
This helps assess hard-to-reach locations if the disaster has hit.
The drones can take pictures and videos of the damage which when transmitted to mobile devices for real-time assessment.
is a drone that comes with the construction-focused software for site scans.
DJI Phantom 4 Real-Time Kinematic is a drone that is used for surveying and mapping as it is capable of making accurate maps.
With GNSS satellite positioning, its accuracy is up to 2 inches i.e 5 cm.
previously.
With this COVID-19 scenario, these delivery drones are proving to be quite helpful in contactless deliveries.
which is a Micro Air Vehicle (MAV) used for military purposes.
Drone technology is constantly evolving and there have been groundbreaking advancements that have taken place over the years.
As technology continues to advance, drones will be far safer, more dependable, and smaller and will do the job in a hassle-free manner.
This is going to allow for the subsequent mass adoption of drone technology in different sectors.
Drones have immense technological potential and we can expect expansion in the horizon!
interview/ajit-thomas-co-founder-of-cavli-wireless-on-how-to-break-the-geographic-barriers-in-iot-connectivity-applications
Ajit Thomas Co-Founder of Cavli Wireless on how to Break the Geographic Barriers in IoT Connectivity Applications
started back in 2017 and within no time, it made the mark with its innovative and best IoT solutions.
who is the co-founder and CMO of Cavli Wireless, Inc.
is a marketing & operations professional with experience across telecom, media, and technology domains.
After stints in Engineering Sales and Marketing Management, he co-founded and helped build a media-marketing company that is now a self-sustaining ecosystem.
Circuit Digest Team got the opportunity to talk to Ajit and to ask him about the company, the current and future scenario, and how customers are benefitted by their IoT-based solutions.
offer absolute control over smart devices wherever they are and whatever applications they are powering.Cavli is on a collective pursuit to break the barriers of connectivity across geographies to enable every object and thing in the physical world to be connected and managed from anywhere.
.This platform gives remote backdoor access to IoT modules and eSIMs, thereby giving businesses the confidence to scale seamlessly.
There is a layer of intelligence and analytics for connectivity management for IoT solutions that are currently not on offer in the global cellular IoT deployment market.
around the world to provision IoT connectivity with the click of a button, and we are getting connected to more partners as we speak.We design and manufacture IoT modules; we have developed our own connectivity management cloud platform that can manage IoT modules and eSIMs, thus making our suite of solutions truly end to end for any product/enterprise looking to deploy a cellular-based IoT solution.
, which is an essential/primary component in your device, along with Cavli Hubble which is the robust eSIM and module management platform that allows an IoT solution player to manage everything under one roof for devices at scale.
Product development companies can mitigate the entry barriers to a full-fledged deployment just by having us as their preferred partner for IoT connectivity enablement.
rather than being limited to a single operator in one country.
The Hubble SIMs and eSIMs from Cavli are preloaded with global data connectivity that works across 180+ countries with over 60+ supported telecom operators.
This gives Cavli the capability to service use cases/applications that need to stay connected to the cellular network across geographies.
With the global telecom operator partners' network coverage, customers have the added advantage that they can choose which telecom operators they want to connect to from the Hubble Platform.
This gives the customers immense flexibility and trust with our platform, which is what we aim to provide.
, i.e.
the eSIM integrated Cavli IoT module.
This is because the full capability of the solution is best showcased when a customer decides to onboard entirely on the Cavli product suite to enable connectivity both at the hardware end and also at the network access and cloud management end.
From the perspective of a product designer, the Cavli Hubble SIM/eSIM uses the industry-standard DFN6 & DFN8 form-factor, but as our primary business model is based on eSIM integrated IoT modules, a product designer does not have the hassle of integrating eSIM technology separately into the device.
for global cellular data subscription management, module, and modem management, enabling businesses and industries to build and deploy easily scalable global IoT devices with ease.
The cloud platform also enables over-the-air firmware (FOTA) updates that quickly sends new features to remote devices with a click of a button.
, IoT solution players get the eSIM integrated connectivity hardware of their choice of technology, pre-loaded IoT data pack, and the robust Connectivity-Device management cloud platform, all together as one single package.
Hubble99 marks the true entry of IoT into the subscription economy age.
The plan has a host of other allied features/benefits like lifetime warranty on the connectivity hardware and access to local IoT networks in over 150+ countries.
as long as the data plan is active, get access to local IoT networks in over 180+ countries, have 24/7 dedicated customer support and application support.
Besides, with Cavli Hubble, the customers can easily gain remote access for firmware and application management, save capital investments on IoT projects by 50% in year one, and 30% in three years and get ‘ready to deployᾠscalable version of their IoT product in 3 months.
as a whole.
NB-IoT will be the de facto choice for all 'Smart' connected things due to its low-power consumption and throughput.With the 5G boom, smart devices are expected to get cheaper and more accessible to all, and NB-IoT over 5G is expected to take the baton from NB IoT over LTE when 5G network penetration improves.
With an estimate of over 25 billion devices getting connected to the internet by 2025, there is no doubt that the adoption rate of these new technologies will be faster with the unique low-power consuming applications expected to ride on Narrow Band technology5G chipsets.
We were set to launch the 5G test network in Q3 2020, but due to the COVID-19 scenario, we have slightly delayed the investment to the mid of 2021 to ensure that we get to attract the best startups who are innovating in the ‘Smart solutionsᾠspace when the business machinery in the country becomes fully operational again.
to be ready for the latest technologies.
The 5G test network will be available in 5G SA and NSA modes (supporting sub-6Ghz bands), along with LTE NB-IoT and CAT-M for the LPWAN side of the IoT.
Access to this test network will be free of cost, and availing this in the Indian ecosystem is expected to fast-track different use cases.
This would allow companies to launch their products globally anywhere completely pre-tested and compliant.
As 5G will bring many new test requirements and challenges by the use of SDN/NFV and cloud services, the technology can also be used for creating new test solutions that address these markets.
as these two technologies lay the foundation for connected devices such as smart meters, smart cities, etc.
, and thus, all the fundamental aspects of an IoT device have been combined into it, which includes both connectivity and computational power.
article/how-to-test-a-smps-power-supply-board
How to Test a SMPS Power Supply Board
easily and efficiently.
The following examination gives you an idea about the most basic power supply architectures and their testing process.
both of which we discussed earlier.
Basics of SMPS Testing ᾠPoints to Remember
Switched-mode power supplies (SMPS) circuits normally switch very high voltage DC with an auto adjustable duty cycle, in order to regulate the output power with high efficiency.
But doing so introduces safety concerns that can be harmful to the device if not taken care of.
to convert high voltage DC to low voltage DC.
The schematic was made to understand the high voltage side and low voltage side clearly.
In the high voltage side, we have a fuse as a protection device, then the mains voltage is rectified and filtered by the input rectifier diodes D1, D2, D3, D4, and capacitor C2, this means the voltage level in between those lines can reach more 350V or more at a given point in time.
Engineers and technicians should be very careful while working with these potentially lethal voltage levels.
C2, as it holds the charge for a long time, even when the power supply is disconnected from the mains.
Before we proceed with any testing of the SMPS circuit, this capacitor needs to be discharged properly.
In the schematic, it is denoted as T1, the transformer T1 in conjunction with the optocoupler OK1 provides isolation from the primary side.
In a test situation where the secondary section is connected to earth ground and the primary section is floating.
The situation connecting a test instrument in the primary section will cause a short circuit to the ground, which can permanently damage the test instrument.
Other than that, a typical flyback converter needs a minimum load to work properly otherwise the output voltage cannot be regulated properly.
Power Supply Tests
in production environments primarily focuses on overall function based on the specifications determined during the product design phase.
The constant-voltage power supply has a built-in feedback loop that continuously monitors and stabilizes the output voltage by changing the duty cycle accordingly.
If the delay between the feedback and control circuit approaches a critical value at its unity-gain crossover, the power supply gets unstable and starts oscillating.
This time delay is measured as an angular difference, and it is defined as the degree of phase shift.
In a typical power supply, this value is 180 degrees of phase shift between the input and output.
in the load.
, the test is performed to observe the current limiting capabilities of a constant voltage power supply.
The actual current limit can be fixed or it can be variable depending on the type and requirement of the power supply.
after the output rectification and filtering stage.
is simply the ratio between its total output power divided by its total input power.
The output power is DC where the input power is AC, so we need to obtain a true RMS value of the input power to achieve this.
A good quality wattmeter with true RMS capabilities can be used, by doing this test, the tester can understand the overall design parameters of a power supply if the measured efficiency is out of space for a chosen topology, then it's a clear indication of a poorly designed power supply or defective parts issue.
to limit the initial current for the switching transistor.
A typically good power supply is designed to shut down if the output voltage of the power supply exceeds a certain threshold level, if not, this can be harmful to the device on load.
Typical SMPS Testing Setup
should have commonly available testing and safety equipment that minimizes safety concerns.
The isolation transformer is there to electrically isolate the primary section of the SMPS circuit.
When isolated, we can directly attach any ground probe, negating the high voltage side of the power supply.
This eliminates the possibility of a short circuit direct to the ground.
The autotransformer can be used to slowly increase the input voltage of an SMPS circuit, doing so while monitoring the current can prevent a catastrophic failure.
In a different situation, it can be used to simulate low voltage and high voltage situations, doing so we can simulate situations where line voltage changes abruptly, this will help us understand the behavior of the SMPS in those conditions.
In general, a universal rated power supply ranges from 85V to 240V can be tested with the help of an autotransformer, we can test the output characteristic of an SMPS circuit very easily.
A light bulb in series is a good practice when it comes to testing an SMPS circuit, a certain failure of a component can lead to exploding MOSFETs.
If you are thinking about an exploding MOSFET, you read that right! MOSFET does explode in high current power supplies.
So, an incandescent light bulb in series can prevent a MOSFET from getting blasted.
To test the performance of any SMPS circuit, a load is necessary, while some high-power resistor is most certainly the easy way to test certain load capacity.
But it's almost impossible to test the output filter section without a varying load, that is why an electronic load becomes necessary as we can easily measure output noise at different load conditions by varying the load linearly.
which can be used for low power SMPS testing.
With the help of an electronic load, we can easily measure the performance of the output filter, and it's necessary because a poorly designed output filter, in a certain load condition, can couple harmonic and noise at the output, which is very bad for sensitive electronics.
Testing the SMPS with a High Voltage Differential Probe
While voltage measurement can be done easily with the help of an isolation transformer but a better way is to use a differential probe for high-voltage measurements.
Differential probes have two inputs and measure the difference in the voltage between the inputs.
It does this by subtracting the voltage at one input from the other without any intervention from ground rails.
which improves the dynamic range of the probe.
In a generic SMPS circuit, the primary side switches with a very high switching voltage of 340V and a relatively fast transition time.
Which in case generates noise, in these situations if we try to measure the input signal in the gate of the MOSFET, we will gate high noise rather than an input switching signal.
This problem can easily be eliminated by using a high voltage differential probe with high CMRR which rejects the interfering signals.
Conclusion
equipment can certainly reduce the risk greatly.
to post other technical questions.
article/how-can-uv-lights-be-used-to-kill-virus
How Can UV Lights be Used to kill Virus? Things You Should know as an Engineer
COVID-19 pandemic has breathed a new life into a decades-old ultraviolet light technique to kill viruses and bacteria.
With the virus spreading at such a fast pace globally, various tech giants, start-ups, and technical institutions have started working towards coming up with smart solutions.
UV sanitization to talk about has gained ground and the market is flooded with various products that claim to make your surroundings virus-free.
Besides electronic giants, various technological institutions, startups, etc.
have jumped onto the bandwagon of coming up UV sanitization products and solutions.
We got a bit curious to get the answers to these questions and delved into the topic.
Let’s try and understand this a bit.
What Exactly are UV Lights?
(1 nm=10-9m) and is invisible to human eyes.
Out of the three types of UV lights viz.
UVA, or near UV (315ᾴ00 nm), UVB, or middle UV (280ᾳ15 nm), UVC, or far UV (180ᾲ80 nm) has gained favor due to its ability to help kill various types of viruses.
Unlike UVA and UVB, the UVC is completely absorbed by atmospheric ozone and has minimal penetration to the surface of the Earth.
Thus, it has little effect on human health and can be created artificially by various means.
Exposure to UVC lights should be completely avoided.
Can UV Lights kill Viruses?
has been known to be quite effective in destroying germs, viruses, and other DNA and RNA of other harmful contaminants, altering their structure and making them unable to replicate.
UV-A and UV-B lights on the other hand have the ability to kill bacteria but have limited efficacy in the inactivation of viruses.
Researches show that UV-C can effectively inactivate airborne microbes that transmitmeasles,tuberculosis,andSARS-CoV-1.
The UV lights prove to be a safe, inexpensive, and efficient way of eliminating airbornefluviruses in hospitals, offices, schools, airports, etc.
by limiting the transmission and spread of airborne-mediated microbial diseases like influenza and tuberculosis.
In simple words, the UV lights play a vital role in sterilization and disinfection.
Microorganisms have less protection against UV and cannot survive prolonged exposure to it.
Practical Applications of UV Lights
Because of its effectiveness, UV germicidal technology has proved incredibly useful for hospitals, medical labs, senior care Centres, fire and police stations, airports, transit stations, schools, government buildings, office buildings, and hotels.UV germicidal technology is integrated into air conditioning systems to sterilize pathogens that cause illnesses and contaminants that can aggravate respiratory conditions.
Besides, there are UV lamps that are to remove harmful or toxic chemicals produced in many industries and to reduce or eliminate harmful toxins from the industrial exhausts.
UV lights are used in hospitals.
There are UV towers in the hospitals that are used whenever a new patient is admitted to the hospital.
Also, the hospitals use UV lamps for sterilizing surgical equipment and the air in operation theaters.
Besides, germicidal lamps are successfully used in air conditioning systems of medical and other facilities to sterilize pathogens that cause illness, and contaminants which are responsible for aggravating asthma or other respiratory ailments.
Commercial airlines play a direct role in spreading viruses.
Airports have the ability to carry germs across continents.
Therefore, effective routine treatment should be done.
For these various UV, scanners are being used to kill the viruses and germs.
which is the first UVC system designed to quickly disinfect an aircraft’s interior surfaces between flights.
The robot sanitizes airplanes and helps disrupt the spread of coronavirus.
Does UVCReally Destroy Germs?
UVC is strongly absorbed by RNA and DNA basis leading to molecular structural damage, thereby destroying the ability of the cell of an organism to reproduce.This results in virus inactivation, such that they are no longer able to replicate.
He further added that UV light kills everything from bacteria to fungi, viruses, etc.
The effectiveness of UVC depends on the intensity, wavelength of the UV radiation, and the amount of time for which the microorganism is exposed to UV, the presence of particles that can protect the microorganisms from UV, and the ability of a microorganism to withstandUV during its exposure.
Farther the distance from the light source, the lesser will be the UVC reaching the target.
are the most efficient source for generating UVC.
In these lamps, approximately 35% of input watts are converted to UVC watts.
The radiation is generated almost at 254 nm (which means 85% of the maximum germicidal effect and 80% on the IES curve).
Advantages of UV Lights
Using UV lights for sterilizing and disinfecting has some advantages over other methods and that is the reason it has been used for many years.
Not just that, with the COVID-19 pandemic, its use has risen to a great extent.
The first advantage to talk about here would be its ability to kill various kinds of microorganisms, including drug-resistant bacteria, fungi, viruses, spore, etc.
It is a convenient method and no chemicals are needed, which thereby leaving no chemical residues behind.
Limitations of UV Lights
like skin cancer, cataracts, etc.
UV light exposure is a direct antimicrobial approach and the most commonly employed type of UV light for germicidal applications is a low-pressure mercury-vapor arc lamp that emits around 254nm.
The xenon lamp technology that emits a broad UV spectrum has been in use recently.
Such lamps can be used to disinfect unoccupied spaces; however, direct exposure to conventional germicidal UV lamps in occupied public spaces is not possible as direct exposure to these germicidal lamp wavelengths proves to be harmful to both to the skin and eyes.
The second limitation of using UV lights for sterilization and disinfection is that UV only works in its light path and can be blocked by objects.
This means the object that has to be sterilized is kept directly in line with the UV light and there should be no obstruction in between.
This issue can be addressed by using multiple UV bulbs that generate UV irradiation from different angles.
He shared with us some insightful information on the UV lights.
Here is what he said.
Upper-Room GUV Air Disinfection
Upper-room GUV air disinfection is one of the methods to fight airborne viruses.
The lighting is installed in the air-handling system so that the air circulating through the facility is treated.
As UV-C light does not directly reach people in the facility, this method can run for a longer period of time and prove to be quite effective.
Besides, there are lower room fixtures that have the ability to eliminate up to 99.9% of bacteria and viruses in a space.
As these fixtures treat the lower areas of a room, they cannot be used to operate the rooms when they are occupied because of the fact that these can lead to health issues in the occupants, so these spaces are decontaminated when unoccupied.
Can UV Light be Used to kill SARS-CoV-2?
and other coronaviruses like the severe acute respiratory virus (SARS-CoV) and Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome (MERS-CoV).
, a researcher at Columbia University found UV-C is effective against the SARS-CoV-2 virus.
The technology developed by the university’s Center for Radiological Research uses lamps that emit continuous, low doses of a particular wavelength of ultraviolet light to kill viruses and bacteria without harming human skin, eyes, and other tissues.
According to Brenner, the lamp emitting UV light can be safely used in occupied public spaces, and it kills pathogens in the air before we can breathe them in.
The team of researchers has previously found the method effective in inactivating the airborne H1N1 influenza virus, and drug-resistant bacteria.
Multiple, long-term studies on animals and humans have confirmed that exposure to far-UVC does not cause damage to the skin or eyes.
Besides, it is said that UVC technology has the potential to provide a powerful check on future epidemics and pandemics.
There have been ongoing discussions on whether UV light technology will prove successful in killing germs or not.
One thing is for sure that with the COVID-19 pandemic, the use of UV lights has seen a surge and we can easily predict the future scenario.
As the COVID-19 crisis will gradually ease off, fingers crossed; there will be many situations when people will move closer together in indoor places like hospitals, doctor’s clinics, educational institutes, public transport, restaurants, offices, gyms, etc.
In such situations, overhead UVC lights will definitely prove beneficial in continuously killing microbes including the coronavirus, thereby curbing the spread of the virus.
Having said that, UVC light has the potential to be a powerful tool to limit the spread of COVID-19 and other infectious diseases, but none of the strategies is completely effective on its own.
Various existing techniques and new ones would have to be used together for better results.
interview/arjun-natarajan-ceo-of-wiitronics-solutions-on-how-they-develop-iot-based-parking-solutions-to-combat-urban-battle-for-parking-space
Arjun Natarajan, CEO of WiiTronics Solutions on How They Develop IoT Based Parking Solutions to Combat Urban Battle for Parking Space
of today have every facilitybut alleviating the parking issue remained unaddressed for long.
through their company WiiTronics.
Keen to know more about the company, we asked Arjun (who is the CEO and the founder of the company) for one on one interaction with him and here we are ready to get the ball rolling.
So, let’s start with thearticle to get insight into the products thatWiiTronics is offering and how are those proving beneficial in terms of proper parking management.
WiiTronicsis an IIT Madras incubated company thatwas started back in 2013 to develop hardware and software platforms specifically with IoT in our minds.
I am a hardware engineer from Silicon Valley and my partner Siva is a software veteran.
He was working in Wipro previously in India and then he went to Singapore for further studies.
There he was working for a company that was owned by the Singapore government in the R & D side.
So I invited him to come and join me after I started WiiTronics.
We have designed sensors that can detect vehicles, so we use it with our hardware platform.
With this, all the communication from the customer/client side to our cloud server can be facilitated.
The platform can be used to have any other sensor as well, other than vehicle detection sensors.
Our goal is to take all the products that we are designing and all the solutions that we have and go global with it and that’s our focus for the next three years.
connected to the internet and we have a huge application running on it.
It's the brain or the CPU of the entire solution.
, we take it to cloud.
WiiTronics stand out of the crowd for the fact that in other companies, the display participation for a particular driveway is confined to the sensors.
So, if there are a hundred slots and hundred sensors, the display is wired to those sensors and it shows the availability for those hundred slots.
But because of IoT, we can provide cumulative data on each of the displays.
It entirely depends on what kind of parking that we are looking at.
For indoor applications, the parking lot owner is very touchy about installing sensors on the floor, because they have an epoxy coating on the floor and they get warranty for the epoxy coating.
And you can't touch the floor.
That's one of the reasons why we wanted to come up with a sensor that can be put on the ceiling.
It can detect if the slot is available and there is no intrusion on the structure on the flooring.
as well, where we are having a small post on the side of the car.
Even outdoors, we will put our LCDs showing availability.
One of the main reasons for choosing ZigBee is primarily because of how parking lots are designed in India and globally.
Parking lots have got several pillars which are of steel-reinforced concrete and all the cars are made of metals.
There is a huge attenuation.
If we have the gateway installed somewhere, chances are that we are not going to get a line of sight.
That's why we wanted to use a multi-hop protocol where even if the gateway is somewhere around the corner, and there are lift lobbies and escalator lobbies in between, the data that we are sending can hop onto other transceivers and get to the gateway.
Wireless is the line of sight so we can bring data from basement three of a parking lot to outside about 50 meters away from the parking lot to a display.
So that's what ZigBee brings on the table, it's able to hop and get to a destination which is something that Lora cannot do.
We wanted mesh protocol and a multi-hop protocol.
It's a combination, the software is provided as a subscription for the malls, or the airport or wherever, whoever is the operator, and the hardware is sold.
They make a Capex investment and buy the hardware and install it.
too.
And that's captured as the change in voltage across the bridge.
This is amplified and brought out.
It’s like we are reading registers to understand the change in the magnetic field in the relevant axis.
Once that is done, we write our algorithm and we do a small statistical calculation to ensure that it's a vehicle that's on top of the sensor.
The magnetic flux density changes because the chassis on the vehicle is made of metal and it's extremely heavy and it has an impact on the magnetic field surrounding the sensor.
That's how it detects a slot if a car is parked on top of the sensor or not.
So this is probably the most challenging of the products that we've developed so far.
for various reasons.
One reason is that the hardware shouldn’t directly come in contact with the enclosure that is in contact with a tar road and temperature should not come in contact with the hardware.
The second reason is that the application is battery-powered.
So for changing the battery, there is no need to remove the entire enclosure out and change it, the enclosure top is removed and replaced with the other one enclosure by just removing the top.
before we deploy sensors.
Yes, we do manufacture these sensors completely in India.
We faced a lot of challenges.
While designing the magneto-based sensors, we found out that the sensor output varied with temperature.
That’s why we went to great lengths to insulate it from the surface of the road because the surface of the road can go up to say 65-70 degrees Celsius, you've seen in some places that the tar melts on the surface of the road.
Our hardware basically can handle that temperature but only thing is that the sensor output varies with temperature.
So if you design the sensor and put on the road, at seven o'clock in the morning, your sensors are showing some value, at one o'clock in the afternoon, they show different values.
So for each sensor, we had to do temperature calibration, because we were designing these products for the global market viz.
Edmonton in Canada, where you have minus 40 degrees Celsius during peak winter, to places like Dubai, where you have 55-60 degrees Celsius where the surface of the road will probably be higher.
So that's one of the biggest challenges we had to figure out what is the process that we bring in to make sure we do temperature calibration, and the sensor works reliably after that.
of that container if they went on top of the sensor.
So we designed it and got it certified, I had to take a load of about seven tonnes.
So that's about, 2-3 tons more than what a single wheel would handle in a big truck.
As there were not many competitors, it was the journey we had to take up alone but we had a lot of people to help us that's where IIT Madras incubation cell came in, we have several advisors, both on the technology engineering side, and we got a lot of help and lot of it was trial and error.
That's why developing hardware and getting it to the commercial market takes considerable time to achieve that.
are outsourced and so we introduce our distributors to the PCB assembly people and they have their setup distributors as well so that we can see the cost-benefit.
I've never faced any sort of issue in terms of getting a component or getting a product out on time.
As far as designing our hardware is concerned, designing PCBs and doing the assembly, it's not at all hard, and especially in India, I don't think it's a challenge at all.
So that this application that model can be reliably applied for our application, which is the detection of the vehicles.
Besides, we can add certain features like for example, we can add algorithms to detect the vehicle’s number plate, which means that if a specific slot is a result by a specific user with a certain license plate number comes in and parks, we can validate if he is a right user or not.
All this is kind of difficult to achieve with only sensors.
Developing this is somewhat driven by what our competitors are offering as well.
A lot of our competitors are offering computer vision-based technology solutions.
We are also able to do that with additional peripheral services that would help enhance the experience for the user and the operator.
which we are exploring now; we have just started doing that.
The advantage of having two sensors is that you know, our accuracy reaches very close to a hundred percent when it comes to detection of vehicle and radar can work through all kinds of weather conditions.
Millimeter radar is something that's picking up slowly especially without self-driving cars that are coming up.
They use millimeter radar and we are looking at it as add on for computer vision technology.
We have done that in a mall in Chennai, we've deployed computer vision-based cameras, and we do number plate recognition, and we've integrated it as part of the billing system.
Whenever a vehicle comes in, we pick up the number plate and we get a confidence factor from this.
When it's quite high, we just open the barrier, we don't ask the vehicle to stand and get a ticket or anything.Similarly, at the exit when they come, the number plate is captured and we just tell them how much they have to pay.
The accuracy, the NPR is not as high as it should be.
But we are getting reasonably okay output unless the number plate is damaged or you have regional language on the number plate.
Other than that, there is high accuracy.
In a year, we've collected more than three lakh images of various cars and the number of plates and we constantly keep training the system with the data that we collect.
So, that way we can improve accuracy.
There are a lot many things to be done we would like the government to standardize the license plates and come up with proper fonts so that the accuracy can increase.
Other than that, you know, one of our clients, they thought their peak hour traffic is on a Sunday at five in the evening.
But when we went and looked at the data, it was 11 in the morning, and why the data is relevant is because the malls try to have more manpower during peak hours.
So it's important to know what the peak hour is.
On Sunday evenings because the parking lots are already full and vehicles are coming in, they think that it's their traffic.
When we went to look at the data, we saw that the parking lot is empty at 11 in the morning on a Sunday; the rate of arrival of the vehicle was a lot higher.
So, you need manpower when the parking lot is empty, and you want to direct vehicles and see how you want to fill the parking lot rather than when your parking lot is full.
These kinds of important analytics we provide to the end customer so that they can go in and see individual slots usage.
There are several times we've seen in a parking lot.
You will see that the parking gate is closed and the parking lot is full.
The next day we look at the data there were like 20-30 parking lots that were never used for the entire day.
So how do we maximize it so that's why we put a big display outside the parking showing what is our current availability so they don't blindly close the parking lot and say it's full even if one slot is available, it's shown on the big display outside the parking lot that there is a slot available, and you can let people go.
Since there is a constant flow of vehicles in and out, very rarely does the display show parking is full, it happens very rarely.
These are all the added advantage that we get to give the b2b clients that buy these products could be a mall owner airport authority or in a stadium owner, etc.
The sales have been great.
From 2017, we've been growing at more than 3x every year, and last year we grew 10x in terms of revenue.
In terms of sales, the next three years, we are focusing on the North American market, the Middle East market, and the Southeast Asian market, where we are working with a few distributors to figure out what is the right path.
We're trying to target a hundred crore plus revenue in the next five years.
That's where we want to be.
Once we do that, we'll figure out, of course, there are several other applications that we are thinking today as well on the agriculture side.
So when the time is right, if the opportunity is right, we will jump into that as well.
interview/hariharan-ganesh-factana-computing-founder-shares-how-smart-iiot-solutions-can-help-small-enterprizes-and-smes
Hariharan Ganesh, Factana Computing Founder Shares How Smart IIoT Solutions can Help Small Enterprises and SEMs
Over the past few years, IoT has gained immense prominence and the world is fast moving towards a connected environment.
The Small Enterprises, SEMs, and OEMs that are the backbone of the economy are adopting digitally connected business methodology to add value to their business.
Mr.
Hariharan has over 24 years of experience in the IT industry as an Enterprise Architect and BU Head.
across various industries.
where SME and Startup companies that are interested to build their own IoT based solutions can achieve the best.
Fogwing Apps are a list of prebuilt industrial IoT Apps for specific industrial use cases which can be subscribed as SaaS model.
Factana helps customers to adopt end-to-end IoT solutions from industry-grade IoT devices to the user application.
Sometimes, it is a combination of both types of network communication required to build an automation solution.
Fogwing supports both types of IoT network-based device management, data aggregation, and analytics in a single platform.
Example: Monitoring environment climate condition such as greenhouse monitoring may require low-power IoT devices, but manufacturing automation use cases require a high-speed network.
Fogwing IIoT Platform supports all of them.
and Fogwing Agro App are our SaaS subscription offers that come with IoT Kit which can be just plug-and-powerup model.
Our customers need not worry about IoT technologies; it is just as simple as that.
Livestock management is part of our Fogwing Agro App solution.
within the platform to manage the communication between these devices.
In fact, our platform users can also build an integration workflow and send automated commands between Cellular IoT devices and LoRaWAN devices as the M2M model.
We wanted to solve this problem.
As a result, we built Fogwing IIoT Platform as an all-in-one IIoT Platform.
Fogwing provides all end to end capabilities (device management to analytics dashboard) required to build an IoT solution in a single no-code platform.
Also, Fogwing is extremely affordable for anyone to start any type of IoT pilot project at zero cost of investment and extend as a monthly subscription basis.We also provide cloud integration capabilities for our customers to move the data from Fogwing Cloud to other Cloud Service Providers like AWS, GCS, and Azure.
is something of common interest, digitalizing the manufacturing operations with Industrial IoT is going to be the biggest change ever.
Logistics and supply chain play a major role in both the manufacturing and consumer market.
Amazon sets the global benchmark that distribution and delivery can be transparent to customers for them to track their orders.
When simple $10 books can be tracked online, why cannot my $100K manufacturing order be tracked online? It is just extending the supply chain tracking from the origin.
IoT will play a major role in making this digital experience extend to logistics and manufacturing.
is the biggest challenge for all providers in India.
However, there are great companies in India that have demonstrated it.
At Factana, we want to be end-to-end IoT providers to our customers.
So, we offer Industrial IoT Platform to IoT Devices as a comprehensive offering to our customers to ease their adoption of IoT.
with over 100 million job creation.
However, the challenge is around manufacturing skill set and workforce capabilities which show the biggest threat to our growth.
While the other side of the world is already moving into automation, we have to be equipped well to advance our capabilities in automation.
We see that there is a great potential for IoT based industrial automation products, therefore, we are investing in our IIoT Platform and eFactory Application as a combo of IIoT and App in one single subscription.
which usually are available to paid customers.
to our beta customers.
If anyone is interested to be a beta customer program, they may approach us.
COVID-19 is a global disaster that is impacting every person and business across the world, especially small and medium businesses that are heavily impacted due to revenue losses.
For them to come back to financial stability requires them to focus more on business efficiency by reducing operating costs and increasing profitability.
If SMB wants to improve business efficiency, then they should know where they are lagging in the overall operations.
That leads to the demand of operational visibility.
We want to help SMB with Industrial IoT technologies.
IoT technologies are a great tool to get real-time data from manufacturing or operating facilities.
We believe that our eFactory solution will directly help the manufacturer.
But other than we also have Eco App for cold chain logistics business and Agro App for farmers and industrial agriculture companies.
To help them further in this crisis, we offer our environment monitoring, agriculture monitoring kits, and software platform on a rental basis further.
We hope that it helps SMB at this difficult time.
interview/micro-gas-turbines-are-the-thigs-of-future-says-rohit-grover-ceo-of-aerostrovilos-energy
Micro Gas Turbines Are the Thing of Future says Rohit Grover, CEO of Aerostrovilos Energy
Global warming is increasing day by day and is expected to have a far-reaching, long-lasting, devastating effect on planet Earth.
To combat the situation, various companies are doing their bit.
Aerostrovilos Energy, the IIT-Madras incubated automotive start-up joined the bandwagon in 2017 with the idea to develop gas turbines that are primarily used for aerospace propulsion or large power generation from tens to hundreds of MWs.
Gas turbines are the cleanest burning devices that can adapt to a variety of fuels, thereby creating a net Carbon Neutral ecosystem with the help of biofuels.
He wanted to pioneer it and work towards bringing about change in jet engine technology.
Taking out time from his busy schedule, Rohit shared the idea behind starting the company, work style, success story of Aerostrovilos Energy, and lots more with the CircuitDigest team.
from scratch.
as part of their Project Ankur for our product development.
We have also been able to adopt the technology from the NCCRD lab on Gas Turbine Combustion that makes our system far better than any existing turbine technologies.
Besides, we are grateful to get support from the Incubation cell for funding, investor connections, mentors, and other legal and CS facilities.
are used in off-grid continuous power operations such as oil rigs, decentralized power, industrial co-generation.
These applications typically have an unreliable grid which makes turbines that are extremely reliable as a perfect solution.
It has extremely low operation and maintenance requirements.
However, due to extremely high capital cost, typically 10 times of a diesel gen-set, it has not been used as a backup power but only as prime power, hence has a very small market share.
In the early 2010s when the battery costs were high; the turbine generators were tried as a range extender by many companies and didn’t move to a production scale due to high costing.
Now with our innovation, we are able to bring the material requirement down to the less exotic and automotive category and thereby bringing the cost down at par with the existing Diesel Engine technology.
This can now allow it to find applications in the Diesel gen-set and EV market.
where the incoming air is compressed to higher pressure, burnt in a combustion chamber, and expanded across a turbine to create the shaft power that can be used to run a generator.
Unlike bigger turbines, the microturbines can be completely oil-free.
Micro Turbines in principle are fuel flexible which requires some modification to a combustion chamber for different fuels.
However, with our unique combustion chamber technology, we don’t need to do that either.
For liquid or gaseous fuel, a small change in the fuel line is needed to select the fuel and the same machine can be run with different variety of fuels starting from CNG, LPG, diesel, petrol, biogas, biodiesel, etc.
Turbines, unlike DG sets, burn the fuel completely like an LPG burner in our kitchen stoves and has very little pollutant emissions.
The emission levels are 20-30 times lower than the most stringent BSVI as well.
They are 5 times smaller in size and 8 times lighter than a diesel engine for the same power level.
This is similar to a series hybrid EV where we have an on-board generator, which in this case will be a turbine generator.
Essentially, it will be an EV at the front with an EV power train, and with 90% of battery replaced by a suitable MGT generator.
footprint also comes down significantly.
ICE has a maintenance period of 500 hours (30,000 km) and a life of 10,000 hours(6, 00,000 km), whereas turbines will have a maintenance cycle of 10,000 hours and a life span of 40,000 hours, which is far greater than ICE.
of about 8 lakh km, whereas the Turbine can continue to go for 3-4 times.
Finally, the advantage of fuel flexibility results in the capability to use diesel, petrol, CNG infrastructure, and later on, shifting to bio-ethanol, bio-diesel can be smoothly done.
Turbines can easily fit in a vehicle as it is lighter than the ICE.
As I said before at the front, it is like an EV and driven by an Electric Motor.
The turbine provides the major source of power for these motors with a small battery pack that will be used for certain extra power for quick acceleration or shall get charged during braking.
Yes absolutely! The sector we are focusing on is heavy-duty vehicles and they are the ones which are one of the biggest culprits for pollution and the battery technology might require another 20 years globally to catchup in developed economies and perhaps much more than that for India.
Hence, if we compare that to an existing ICE truck that would stay the same for the next 30-40 years, we can make leaps in reducing the emissions.
We are also banking on CNG and biofuels based fuels along with electrification as part of the government plan for future energy to bring down the emissions.
Here are a few numbers for your reference for a truck/bus.
; 50 Tons of CO & NOx, 10 Tons of PM reduction annually.
annually
Yes, the fuel cost can come down significantly by up to 3 times with diesel and CNG mixed usage compared to ICE.
We are yet to test our turbines with a vehicle and for that, we are working closely with a few OEMs which are in the commercial vehicle segment.
We would be supplying them with the machine.
The challenge we might face would be in the integration of the technology with their platform.
Moreover, certain challenges from the regulatory side might be there in terms of subsidy and GST rebate, etc.
The turbines are cleaner than ice and should also come under subsidy.
Other nations provide subsidies for vehicles with a new concept such as a hybrid.
That needs to be done here as well.
It is a plausible scenario.
Turbines have been around since the 40s-50s.
They have replaced the piston engines, then due to their superior reliability and performance, and with certain innovations that we are bringing in; they can certainly do the same for terrestrial applications including DG sets.
The USP of the turbine lies in its fuel flexibility or ability to run low calorific value or dirty fuels such as biogas, syngas, etc.
which the ICEs struggle to adapt to.
Once the volume-based manufacturing is established for gas turbines using the existing cheaper materials and manufacturing standards that are used for making a turbine-like component called Turbocharger, they can compete with DG sets on various aspects which includes efficiency, reliability, emissions, etc.
Some of you may know about Turbocharger.
These are similar to an MGT in terms of construction and principle.
They are produced in bulk and are used with ICEs running on diesel to improve its performance.
They are mass-manufactured using cheaper materials and well-established manufacturing processes.
We intend to use the same process to make our MGTs and the catch here is our LDI technology which now makes it possible to use these processes for making an MGT.
We had to think from the first principle and understand why can't the gas turbines be cheaper and what stops them from being so and realized it was the exotic material selection that goes into the aviation-grade machine.
But for automotive application with certain changes in our combustor region, we were successful to lower the temperatures which didn’t require us to use those exotic materials and manufacturing processes adopted for aviation-grade turbines or jet engines anymore.
that uses cleaner fuels such as natural gas, biogas, or producer gas.
Over time, we will be bringing further innovations in our technology for various subsystems that we are currently importing.
article/wearable-technology-where-we-are-today-and-what-the-future-holds-for-us
Wearable Technology - Where we are Today and what the Future Holds for us?
, it has been here for quite some time now and its popularity is increasing day by day.
that is fast-changing with time in terms of size, battery, etc.
Years back, nobody could ever expect that the watches could tell more than just time; they could read messages, monitor your health by keeping track of your stress level, sleeping pattern, and more.
But here we are today with oodles of wearable tech products already up on the market shelves.
in different areas is very vast and still growing.
Witnessing the growth graph of wearable technology, it has become increasingly essential to recognize and understand the future aspect of this technology.
Let’s take a closer look at the current scenario and what we can expect in the future in the wearable technology sector.
What are the Types of Wearable Techs We See Today?
Wearable techs range between normal compression socks that relieve swollen/aching legs caused by various disabilities, to high-tech wearables that we can say have exploded over the last few years.
Like shoes with sensors that can convert movement into energy to track your exercise and weight changes and a piece of jewelry that track your heart rate, body temperature and blood oxygen levels, providing you with vital health statistics to shirts with sensors to monitor your physiology, broadcasting it to the world around you, the virtual assistant built into your contact lenses, microchips in nail polish, buttons with embedded GPS, headgear; the wearable technology has come a far way.
Benefits Users are Availing from these Wearable Techs
There are innumerable ways in which wearable technology is sweeping in your day-to-day lives.
From helping us keep track of our health and letting us make changes in our lifestyle to lead a healthier life to help save lives of many people, keeping us safe and making things fun and smart, wearable technology has become vital.
The dominant sector that is increasingly being benefitted by the smart wearable technology is the healthcare/medical and fitness/wellness sectors, infotainment, etc.
Not just that, the wearables are becoming a blessing for people with various types of disabilities as they can perform the tasks which otherwise they could not.
Besides, offices and homes have both moved towards smart devices, and have been enabling users to manage all of their devices in sync.
The Paradigm Shift We Expect to See in Wearable Technology
is shining bright.
We are not just wearing the technology on the body but inside the body too.
The wearable technology is changing with time and the change is leaving the consumers amazed.
The wearables are becoming less and less visible.
The technology is easily being fitted into earrings, shoes, clothing, etc.
and is not easy for the other people to spot.
Besides, wearable gadgets are becoming more and more battery-efficient and do not require a lot of charging and internet connectivity.
to (monitor blood sugar levels and automatically supplying insulin.
Moreover, the wearable technology is helping in authentication in doing things like unlocking your home, buying things at the store, going through security checks, etc.
The Future of Wearable Technology / Wearable Technology of Tomorrow
The innumerable developments going on in the field of wearable technology is surely leaving us amazed but then definitely their several users are still not sure whether they want to walk around with these wearable devices on their body.
Overcoming, the challenge is a bit tricky but then if it’s done, the potential of wearable devices lies ensured to help in enhancing the productivity and well-being of people of all ages and abilities.
Implantables too have been around for quite some time now and with the help of sensors connected to the IoT that is embedded in the person’s body.
These wearables have changed the way local news is shared, how people engage within secure messaging, learning apps with children’s animated stories, and the list seems endless.
The future of wearable technology will ensure enhanced safety and each person might have a personal alarm button worn on the wrist or some Radio frequency ID blocking wearable so that his/her identity could not be stolen.
An improvised version of current wearables and the development of new unimaginable wearables could be a boon for the users.
, an IoT Wearable Technology Expert, we discussed the current and future scenario of wearable technology, the IoT Wearable Technology, and here is what he said:
The sensor fitted insoles (Stridalyzer) can connect to the mobile application and are used to analyze Running Gait, other sports data, and also gives the injury prediction.
The Stridalyzer technology can be used for rehab (sports medicine), balance training (brain stroke), foot ulcer prediction (diabetes), fall risk prediction (elderly), and many other foot problems.
Recent Advancements in the field of Wearable Technology
during the COVID-19 pandemic, advancements in wearable technology are highly visible.
Self-adhesive sensor predicts heart failure, electronic skin patches, personalized nutrition smart wearable patch to reduce diabetes risk, self-charging medical devices, color-changing photonic crystals, eyeglass sensors to automatically monitor diet there are innumerable wearable techs that are some of the examples of the current advancements in the wearable technology
Not just that, recent research led by the Southern University of Science and Technology (SUSTech) has found that gelatin could be used to power devices in the future with the heat generated from the human body.
Also, engineering researchers have created ultrathin stretchable electronic material that is gas permeable (which helps the material to breathe).
This is paving the way for more functional wearable tech.
Pinned below is the picture of a fast, sensitive, biocompatible, soft, and flexible bioelectronics device that has long-term stability in physiological environments.
Now that we have reviewed the current and future scenario of wearable tech, we know that its present and future is bright with innumerable possibilities and applications.
The result of this technology surge is undoubtedly going to be better making a more efficient world of devices that operate at a faster speed and are easily worn to perform the assigned tasks and functions.
Thus, we can expect wearables to expand the digital market to a great extent and can be implemented in new domains other than the existing ones thereby transforming our lives to be safer, more automated, and convenient.
article/role-of-iot-in-promoting-livestock-through-remote-monitoring-and-data-driven-decision-making
Role of IoT in Promoting Livestock Health through Remote Monitoring and Data-Driven Decision-Making
in our previous article.
like the ones developed and manufactured by startups like NEERx, farmers can get accurate and real-time microclimate information.
The farmers can monitor the field conditions from anywhere.
IoT-based smart farming is highly efficient when compared with the conventional approach.
technology by farmers and focus on livestock monitoring for disease detection to improve farming efficiency is rising high.
How IoT is helping in Tracking and Monitoring Livestock?
Today’s technologically advanced-era where smartphones, tablets, and fitbits with added features are tracking our every move is making is become accustomed to the idea of data points monitoring behavior.
Application of the Internet of Things in agriculture promises previously unavailable efficiency, reduction of resources and cost, automation, and data-driven processes enabling farmers to get high-quality crop yield.
IoT technology has spurred positive changes in the way farmers keep tabs on grazing animals, such as sheep and cows.
Nowadays, more and more lightweight, compact, and comfortable IoT devices are being developed to help farmers get data of the location, health, and well-being of cattle.
The smart IoT-based sensors are being placed into a cow's throat and stomach, worn around the animalsᾠneck as fabric-covered collars or as an ear tag that has tracking capabilities and communicates via Bluetooth.
The IoT devices enable farmers to monitor animal’s health, location, eating habits, and reproductive cycle to the herd’s grazing and movement patterns in a pasture.
Advantages of IoT-Based Livestock Monitoring
Various livestock sensors can help farmers get notified on when animals have roamed away from the herd, their location, data related to the health of the livestock, and much more.
It helps in identifying sick animals, lowering down labor costs, and face specific challenges while instrumenting the livestock with the sensors.
Many times, farmers have to struggle hard to find the lost livestock that gets separated from the herd due to reasons like ill health or if they are in heat.
The IoT wearable devices ensure to provide relief to the farmers as with this livestock can be easily traced that too without sparing much time.
IoT devices help in tracking the movement pattern of animals, optimizing their grazing patterns, and others.
Also, if there is any change IoT devices notice in the behavior of livestock, the farmers get notified for the same.
Moreover, the movement tracking can help maximize a farmer’s pastureland.
With the data that a farmer gets by tracking each animal’s movement and herd’s migration, the grazing patterns can be optimized.
These devices enable farmers to monitor heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, temperature, digestion, and other health-related data.
Also, monitoring the health of the livestock ensures the reduction in livestock feeding issues too.Without IoT monitoring, various health problems and feed issues in a herd may go undetected until one or more animals require veterinary care.
By continuously measuring each animal’s condition and behavior, farmers can take action at the right time.
The IoT-based devices make it easier to monitor and measure reproductive cycles of the cow and know when a cow goes into heat.
Additionally, an IoT sensor can send an alert to the farmer when the cow goes into labor making the calving process safer and the farmer does not have to continually check the cow to see if she has started calving.
The IoT devices rolled out to manage the livestock also help farmers in maximizing the livelihood of the livestock.
With these devices, it is easy to correlate cattle movement with specific behaviors like pasturing, lying down to chew the cud, and more.
The IoT devices can also help in tracking the right time for milking, measuring the milking amount and speed, etc.The data gathered from the cow’s activity allows a farmer to help cows improve their diet and increase lactation.
This eliminates guesswork and increases the length and quality of milking sessions.
How IoT is revolutionizing livestock health-promoting data-driven decision-making is a vast topic.
To understand more about the technology that is helping farmers improve the crop yield by livestock management, we asked the Ex-CEO of INHOF Technologies to shed some light on it.
to know his viewpoint and understand the role of IoT in livestock management.
To which he said:
After a lot of research work and discussions with companies manufacturing IoT-based sensors for livestock management, we can say that IoT and AI are two revolutionary technologies that are helping farmers in optimizing their crop yield and promoting livestock health through remote monitoring and data-driven decision-making.
All that needs to be done is catering to the need of the hour and making low-cost effective modules with all the sensors integrated and using trending technologies for real-time data.
With the agricultural industry turning digitalized at a fast pace, we can expect to see farmers increase their revenue and heave-a-sigh of relief to a large extent.
interview/racenergy-founder-arun-sreyas-shares-how-they-develop-battery-swapping-stations-and-battery-packs-to-accelerate-ev-development
RACEnergy Founder, Arun Sreyas shares how they Develop Battery Swapping Stations and Battery Packs for Accelerating EV Development
Reducing the dependency on oil and opting for efficient energy transformation to significantly reduce carbon dioxide footprints and lowering the local emissions from transport is the need of the hour.
It is for this reason that electric mobility has been the subject of discussions over the past few years.
Simply put, electric mobility is a prominent topic in environmental, economic, and social terms.
As per projections, electric vehicles will cost 20% lesser and will be around 10 times lesser in maintenance by the year 2025.
By offering double the mileage in comparison to the vehicles, we commute in today by deploying combustion engines, electrical vehicles are rightly being called the future of mobility and transportation.
Several companies and startups are laying their focus on accelerating the adoption of electrical mobility.
RACEnergy is one such startup that aims to persuade people to adopt electrical mobility by building affordable, safe, and convenient electric vehicles and supporting infrastructure.
To know more about the products and services, we reached toArun Sreyas, the founder of the startup.
Arun is a graduate of BITS Pilani who has a passion for race cars.
Most of his college life was spent building race cars as a part of the FSAE team.
He was the head of the FS team (that comprised of 60 members) in his college.
FS teams are like small organizations handling everything from design, manufacturing, sourcing, etc.
to marketing, fundraising, recruitment, etc.
Post that, he worked at Johnson Controls in Pune as a Design Engineer.
At RACEnergy, he takes care of raising funds, putting a great team together, business development, and growing the company.
Let’s take a look at what he has to say about his company, team members, and how the startup is contributing to accelerating the pace of adoption of electrical mobility.
We intend to set up and grow the network of battery swapping stations, especially for the three-wheeler segment.
We started by doing extensive market research, talking to the auto-rickshaw drivers and understanding their problems, and also understand the problems with the existing products, both ICE and electric in the current market.
There was a lot of interest in our start-up, given our model and approach.
Our investors were confident in the same and hence the whole process of fundraising was a smooth one.
Most of our investment goes into R&D.
We have redefined the architecture or several products and use a combination of product and business model innovation to bring down the costs of the products while focusing on the high reliability and robustness of the product.
Currently, the battery swapping model is in its nascent stages in India and is being tested out with the three-wheeler and the two-wheeler segment.
In the swapping model, drivers do not have to wait to recharge their batteries as swapping takes only a couple of minutes.
This is very crucial for the commercial segment as time off the road translates to money not earned.SUN Mobility is a prominent player in this field.
Given the nature of three-wheelers, their price point, and the mode of operation, it makes the most sense for the three-wheeler market to drive the electric vehicle adoption in India.
Most of the problems have been with the sourcing of the components.
The EV industry in India is currently lagging and there are currently no manufacturers of cells and manufacturing of other critical components like motors are still at a nascent stage.
It is for these reasons that we currently have to rely on international suppliers.
We hope to build the ecosystem soon in India to switch back to local suppliers with time.
We are looking for talent in the testing, quality, and production fields.
We are also looking for talent in the business development field as well.
article/3d-scanning-technology-advantages-challenges-and-future
3D Scanning Technology - The Present Scenario and Future Expectations
When we talk about the most impactful technologies of today that have a very bright future, 3D scanning technology indeed deserves a mention.
3D scanning technology provides an innovative approach to digitally capturethe shape of a physical object by creating“point cloudsᾠof data from the surface.Despite being in its initial stages, this technology is enabling advances in science, education, medicine, education, manufacturing, and many more, infact, it is becoming part of our lives at a much faster pace than expected.
As per some latest market research reports, 3D scanning is predicted to grow at an annual compounded growth rate of 9.6% until 2022 and by the year 2025, the global 3D scanning market will be approximately USD 8.04.
Now, the important thing to understand here is how exactly this impactful 3D scanning technology is proving beneficial, what are its scope, limitations, common uses, and other aspects.
Advantages of 3D Scanning Technology
Various industries including automotive, aerospace, medical, and manufacturers are making optimum use of the 3D scanning technology for inspection of parts, accurate measurement, and other purposes.
Depending on the type of scanner being used, 3D scanning technology offers immense benefits in terms of saving time and resources.
Also, it can be used for recreating designs and parts that do not exist.
In other words, it can be used to reverse engineering a new part that may no longer be available in the market.
Other than this, the exact replacement parts can be created using 3D scanning technology.
The added advantage of this revolutionary technology is in the health sector.
The technology can help in quickly capturing all of the physical measurements of any physical object, ensure the parts are designed so accurately that they can fit together in the first go.
Besides, it can help in capturing engineering optimizations inherent in manufactured parts.
It can also be utilized for modern manufacturing on parts that were originally manufactured before CAD and comparison can be made between as-designed models to the as-built condition of manufactured parts.
The Challenges
Although 3D scanning technology can be used in various fields, there are certain challenges that come with it.
Lighting, for example, is one of the main criteria for 3D scanning.
If the lighting is either less or too much, it can prove to be a hindrance.
Another factor that can prove to be challenging is proper knowledge and understanding of how technology can be used to get the best results.
The 3D technology can be used in various fields, so proper training is required for making optimum use of the technology.
Keenly interested in knowing about 3D digitizing with the power of laser i.e.
3D laser scanners, theirs uses, limitations, and to get insight into more about laser 3D scanning technology, we sat down with Adrian Schipor, 3D Laser Scanning Technology expert and asked him about the same.
Here is what he said:
What if Artificial Intelligence is added to the 3D Scanning?
Combining Artificial Intelligence with the 3D scanning brings in greater potential in situations where subjective decisions are needed to be taken.
The NVIDIA Jetson supercomputer technology is making use of 3D scanning.
With AI-based 3D scanners, subjective decisions using set parameters can be taken with ease.
3D scanning is helping aviation sectors to detect dents if any, and with the use of AI, it would be easy to decide if the issue needs to be addressed in the immediate future.
Large-scale adoption and solutions that are the result of 3D scanning and AI are improving the accuracy and lessen down the number of hours that it would take otherwise.
Where is the 3D Scanning Technology Being Used? /Who can benefit from 3D scanning Technology?
3D scanning technology is becoming ever more popular throughout industries all over the world.
From designing to being used in the prototype phase, engineering, production, quality control, distribution; the 3D scanning technology can prove to be advantageous in various sectors.
With advantages like precision, ease of use, and versatility it offers, it can be used in various sectors like healthcare field, education, manufacturing, etc.Companies like Boeing, NASA, Navantia, General Electric, Nike, Hershey, and many more are currently making optimum use of 3D scanning.
Let us take a look at which sectors/fields are being benefited the most from the technology.
It can be used to take accurate measurements of patients in instances where the prosthetic limb is to be created or in case a child has fractured an arm, the 3D scanning technology will take the measurement quickly without forcing the child to sit in a fixed position for long.
By being able to accurately and precisely scan a missing limb, researchers can create exact replicas which can prove to be time and money-saving.
In Phoenix, Arizona, an alligator (named Mr.
Stubbs) was found without a tail.
Researchers from Midwestern University and the Phoenix Herpetological Society in conjunction with Stax 3D used 3D scanning and 3D printing and crafted a prosthetic tail for the alligator.
3D Scanning technology is being used by students to get a better understanding of history, design, and art.
Students at Mid-Pacific Institute in Hawaii used the 3D-scanning technology to create a virtual museum as part of their coursework.
The revolutionary technology is offering an interactive and modern way for students to learn about the artifacts.
3D scanning technology is also proving useful in preserving precious artifacts.
3D scanning technology can be used to create virtual cadavers for students to study and use.
At the Montpellier Medical University in France, medical students were facing a shortage of cadavers to learn about dissections.
3D scanning came as a rescue and the professors of the university started using the technology to accurately capture all dissection stages, and provide 3D photorealistic models thereby creating a realistic virtual cadaver for the students for dissections.
3D Scanning Technology: Expectations
Seeing the present scenario as to how 3D scanning is proving useful in different sectors, we can ascertain that it has a bright future ahead and almost every sector is likely to benefit from the technology in the years to come.
3D technologycan help open the doors of the museum.
How? Empowering museum professionals in analyzing the internal structure of the objects easily, the doors of museums can open up for learning opportunities for the students and professionals for exploration.
Besides, it will enable visitors to download and print objects in the museum.
This definitely will enhance awareness and help people get crucial information for projects and research work.
can be used in the very initial phases of designing in the form of CAD files.
The 3D models help in improving the accuracy of the design.
Various industries can make optimum use of the 3D scanning to try various versions of the same design on the computer before finalizing the design.
This definitely will reduce the cost and amount of rework it would have otherwise required if done physically time and again to get the best results.
The scanners can capture the physical measurement of an object accurately and help to generate CAD files effortlessly.
Also, the comparison between designs becomes easier.
This definitely is going to prove boom to manufacturing industries.
will be used to teach computers to make decisions based on specific criteria.
Also, these two technologies can help in inspecting dent in airplanes, measuring impressions, thereby, helping in taking decisions if the immediate action is required or not.
The quality control is one main area where 3D scanning can prove to be quite successful.
Automating quality control with the help of 3D technology has led to the reduction in human error and labor hours, thereby, directly impacting the expenses and increasing the flexibility in quality control.
Future of 3D Scanning
is sure to increase multi-folds in the years to come and we can be sure that the technology is indeed going to become the necessity for various industries.
Having said that, we know that with the advancement of this technology, it is going to help industries and various sectors push the boundaries and help them make advancement in various forms.
3D scanning technology is soon going to become a vital part of our day-to-day life.
article/how-to-design-a-pcb-antenna-for-24ghz
How to Design a PCB Antenna for 2.4GHz
Before we start, let me tell you, I am not an RF expert, but I do have some over the yearsᾠexperience to tell you some of the basics to get up and running with your project.
Antennas in General
Although the subject of this article says PCB antenna for 2.4GHZ, but some basic background information about antennas will be very useful for beginners if you are a pro and if your intention is just only to learn about a PCB antenna, you can skip this part.
An antenna is a structure that is made up of metallic objects, often wire or a group of wires used to convert high-frequency current into electromagnetic waves and vice versa.
In general, you can say it's a special type of transducer that converts high-frequency currents into EM waves.
, depending upon the frequency, wire length, and dielectric material, the wire acts as an impedance matching transmission line, we will discuss more on this later in the article.
An antenna somewhat must act as a resonance circuit i.e.
it must have the ability to transfer energy from electrostatic to electromagnetic, if the impedance match is correct, the energy will begin the transfer and it will be radiated into the atmosphere in the same way that a transformer transforms energy from its primary to secondary.
The above discussion is an over-simplification of the process that is encountered in the RF transmission but you can view it as a basis for further discussion
Wavelength, Frequency, and Length of an Antenna
In an antenna, wavelength, frequency, and antenna length depend on each other, I am going to explain these three parameters with a basic example.
The length and shape of the antenna is related to the wavelength of the transmitter frequency; i.e.
the mechanical length is inversely proportional to the numerical value of the frequency;
As we all know the formula-
T=1/f
Where T = Time
F = frequency
So, for an antenna, operating at 50MHz,
t =1/f = 0.2uS,
And the wavelength (λ) = C/f = 3*10^8 / 50*10^6 = 6m
Where, C is the speed of light.
For a quarter wavelength antenna, it becomes λ /4 to be fixed.
The above basic example was to show you how you can calculate the wavelength for a certain frequency
Now the basic out of them, we can turn our focus to the main attraction of the blog which is PCB antenna design.
Before continuing, let me tell you that I am not going to go bit by bit and explain all the very details about every aspect of a PCB antenna because I do not have the level of expertise, tools, and measurement needed for this kind of detailed explanation.
Instead, I am going to discuss some of the core concepts, best practices, and things to keep in mind.
With that being said let's design it!
Choosing the right type of antenna
for this project, so depending on the requirements, there are only two major types of antenna that dominate all others which are:
The inverted F antenna
The Meander line inverted F antenna
Antenna Calculations
Before we start the calculation, we need to set some parameters straight.
First, we have to select the substrate, and operating frequency, next we have to calculate the appropriate length and width of the substrate, and finally we will calculate the length and width of the trace.
To explain the design of the antenna, we are assuming that PCB is made out of FR4 material which has a relative permeability of 4.4, this parameter is very important as we will see later in the calculation.
The height of the substrate can be calculated by using,
where,
hs = Height of the substrate,
F= Frequency in GHz,
C= Velocity of light in m/s,
Σr= Substrate dielectric constant.
The Width of the trace can be determined using
The length of the trace can be determined using
Where,
Σff = Effective permittivity
Σff=(Σr+1/2) + (Σr-1/2) (1/(↱+12hs/(w)))(4)
ΔL = Physical length
Length of the Substrate is given By,
Ls = Lp + 6hs
The width of the substrate is found by,
ws = wp+ 6 hs(7)
The microstrip width to depth ratio is determined by,
Where,
d = Width of the trace,
w = Width of the substrate
A = Effective area.
to show how easy it is and how complicated it can be to design a board and an RF module on board.
Designing the Schematic
Here we are designing the 2.4 GHz antenna for ESP8255 Mini board, so below is the circuit diagram for the same.
We will also build the complete PCB from this circuit diagram in the next article.
I was encountered with the following message:
and in this documentation, I was able to find the complete hardware design guide.
for the ESP.
Both the supplies will be explained in detail later when we design the complete PCB for ESP8285 board, here we will only focus on designing the Antenna
2.4 GHz PCB Antenna Design
The antenna section is made so that it can be switched between the PCB antenna and a whip antenna.
The inductors L3 and L4 are just there as a contingency plan.
The Board Layout
The above image shows you a completely laid board.
section.
Again we will only focus on the Antenna section.
The Antenna Section
Laying out the antenna section is the most difficult part of this project,
First, we need to place all the necessary headers and connectors,
Next, we need to place the antenna, U.FL connector, programming header, switch for the GPIO0, and the microcontroller, I just did that as you can see in the above image.
One keynote to remember before routing the trace is that the trace impedance has to be 50 ohms because it acts as a high-frequency transmission line, and these 50 ohms heavily depends upon the dielectric material and the thickness of the board.
So, we need to calculate that first to plot the appropriate trace.
To calculate the trace width, put all the required parameters, all these parameters you can find in the manufacturer's website
is the trace width, which I manually entered and its 70 mils.
is the Trace Thickness, its 1oz or 1.4 mils.
is Dielectric thickness, which is the thickness of the board which is 39.3701 or 1.6mm.
is Relative dielectric constants that can be found on the manufacturer website and it varies from manufacturer to manufacturer.
Now if I hit the calculate button, I am exactly getting 50 ohms impedance.
So, the final routing looks like the above image, now it's just a matter of manufacturing, programming, and testing the board.
for detailed discussion.
interview/supritam-naskar-cto-of-cell-propulsion-on-how-his-company-develops-electric-power-train-for-buses-and-other-heavy-vehicles
Supritam Naskar, CTO of Cell Propulsion on How His Company Develops Electric Power Train for Buses and Other Heavy Vehicles
of the electric vehicles.
Study shows that the Li-ion battery market in India will grow by about 132 GWh by 2030 growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 35.5% and Many automobile giants are diverting their focus on electric vehicle manufacturing.
‘Cell Propulsionᾠis the only Indian start-up that is designing and developing electric power train technology for buses and other heavy commercial vehicles.
In the quest to understand more about the EV market and get answers to some of the questions that we were curious to know about, the Circuit Digest team reached out to Mr.
Supritam Naskar, CTO of the company.
Supritam Naskar holds a graduate degree in Aerospace Engineering from IIST.
His area of interest is interdisciplinary technology development with a keen interest in the field of Robotics, Power Systems, and Electric Machines.
He has worked in ISRO and was responsible for manufacturing, testing, assembly, and quality control of launch vehicle payload fairings.
Besides, he has experience of working in multiple multidisciplinary projects in the domain of space robotics and spacecraft mechanisms.
Cell Propulsion is an electric mobility company based in Bangalore, India that designs and develops electric power trains and integrated electric mobility solutions to lead the electrification of commercial vehicles.
We are building expertise and core IP in multiple areas like electric motors and motor drives, Li-ion battery packs, BMS, chargers, and associated operating software stack.
These offerings are being commercialized as individual products, as integrated systems, and also as part of fully managed solutions for light electric commercial vehicles and electric buses.
(COO + Founder), a graduate in Mechanical Engineering from Punjab Technical University, who worked in the same division as Nakul.
In 2016, after working for 5 years in ISRO, we decided to put all our learning to accelerate the growth of electric vehicles in the country as we believe that electric vehicles will have a very deep impact in the world of mobility in the years to come.
Nakul has experience of working in the domain of launch vehicle and spacecraft propulsion.
He has worked at the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) on their launch vehicle engines.
Subsequently, he has led the design and development of the lunar lander propulsion system, and the design & development of solar-powered electric aircraft.
At Cell Propulsion, he handles leading the fundraising, and overall strategy of the company.
Paras has worked on developing all-terrain vehicles.
He has worked at ISRO on launch vehicle engine ignition systems.
Subsequently, he has worked on the design and development of thermal control systems for a lunar lander, satellites, the solar-powered aircraft, electronics hardware, and space grade lithium batteries.
At Cell Propulsion, he handles managing company operations like general administration, HR, Finance & Accounts, Compliance, and Supply Chain.
The company began full-time operations in Feb-2017 and planning for beginning this venture began in 2016 when the core team saw a big opportunity in developing solutions for the electrification of terrestrial vehicles given their experience of working on electric aircraft, and other safety-critical aerospace systems.
(eBuses and eTrucks) at the beginning of 2018.
Better Bus provided the right platform to deploy our technology in the field by working with Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation (BMTC) to convert one of their buses to electric, getting it homologated and operating it for public transportation.
We have successfully converted the bus to electric and currently we are doing road tests for preparing the bus for homologation.
This project has been a roller coaster ride for us, working with BMTC, and with all the support from WRI, it has been a learning experience like no other.
As of today we have successfully test run the retrofitted bus a few times and hoping to start some rigorous testing soon after the COVID 19 situation improves in Bangalore.
on a single charge.
The powertrain can be offered at different operating voltages (48V/ 72V/ 96V) basis the range, power, and tonnage requirements of the customer.
The electric powertrain offers at par performance to an ICE drive-train.
The design of the powertrain can be easily customized to offer multiple payload capacities ranging from 600kg to 1200kg.
This integrated powertrain can be used for building new eLCVs and can also be used as a conversion kit to retrofit existing LCVs.
The major technical specifications of eLCV powertrain are as follows: Top Speed - 60kmph, Grade ability - 21%, Peak torque - 200Nm, Peak Power - 40kW, Continuous Power - 20kW
for use in the automotive industry.
These modules are connected in series to achieve higher voltages (48V to 800V).
Our in-house developed Battery Management System (BMS) along with the High Voltage Power Distribution Unit (HV-PDU) enables operation of these modules for all voltages and capacities.
Some of the key challenges in designing the battery modules for high current output are:
Stringent requirement of safe and reliable high-performance thermal management system, we have implemented a highly compact and cost-efficient liquid cooling system for our battery packs.
Design and development of current conductors for the battery pack.
As the voltage drop and the power losses in the conductors have to be minimized, material selection for the conductors is of utmost importance.
Insulation monitoring of HV system and implementation of detection of breach of insulation in the powertrain is a challenge to ensure quick response for the utmost safety of the system
The performance and reliability of the battery packs are highly dependent on the cells used.
Due to the lack of indigenous manufacturing of Li-ion cells, every Indian EV company will have to face logistical challenges to source cells.
However, there are few methods to reduce problems related to the cell supply chain: Source cells from suppliers already having BIS certificate for their products to reduce delays at customs, work with multiple cell suppliers and logistics (3PL) firms to reduce shipping risks and delays, proper due diligence of the manufacturing facilities of various cell suppliers to assess their process reliability and process risk, and managing a large inventory of cells for R&D and realization of battery pack hardware.
The BMS is responsible for managing and ensuring the safe operation of battery modules.
BMS is responsible for over-voltage protection during charging, pre-charging during discharging, over current protection during charge/discharging, short circuit protection, cell balancing, SOH, SoC, capacity fade, and useful battery life estimation and reporting.
for the firmware.
We partner with charge point operators and solar companies for planning and commissioning of EV charging infrastructure and upstream power supply infrastructure.
Some of the key features and technical specifications of LINK are 4G enabled, OTA capability, 9 axis IMU, GLONASS/GPS.
LINK also comes with Cell Propulsion's client-side application, which provides the client with analytics based on the vehicle and powertrain data.
We see massive growth potential for EV solution providers in India.
EVs bring considerable benefits to owners on a total cost of ownership basis.
These benefits are not only linked to savings in fuel and maintenance costs but are also about ease and convenience in use and operation.
The driving experience and comfort are also much better compared to ICE vehicles.
Encouraging government policies and initiatives also instill confidence in the growth of the EV market.
The e2W, e3W, and electric CV segments will drive the growth of this market with other segments like personal passenger vehicles, off-road vehicles, etc.
following the trend of EV adoption.
Lack of indigenous technology and product development has led to low competition in the market.
Due to this, there is a lack of good quality EV products which are also reasonably priced.
This coupled with low penetration of charging infrastructure has resulted in slow adoption of EVs.
We believe that the market is currently not being driven by demand rather by the supply of EVs.
We expect that in the coming years there will be an acceleration in adoption as more players enter the market and supply constraints get resolved.
to support large scale deployment of EVs, and lack of standardization across the industry.
Our target customer segment is commercial vehicle fleet owners and operators.
We work with logistics and cargo companies involved in intra-city (first/last mile) delivery of cargo and goods.
We also work with intra-city bus operators like STUs, school buses, corporate employee transport, etc.
In the coming years as our EV technology matures, we’ll also begin serving inter-city logistics, inter-city buses, and long-haul trucking.
Our go-to-market strategy is to offer retro-fitted/re-manufactured eLCVs and eBuses to our customers as part of our fully managed mobility solutions.
This reduces the risk for our customers as they begin to experiment with EVs in their operations using old assets converted to electric at a lower cost.
We act as a one-stop solutions provider to our customers and provide support in all aspects of using and deploying EVs in their fleets.
We are currently doing pilots with few early adopters and taking large volume orders for eLCVs while gearing up for their mass production.
case-studies/why-its-important-to-set-date-and-time-in-numerical-relays
Why is it Important to Set Date and Time in Numerical Relays?
, transmission lines, and motors.Therefore, many simple yet important things need to be checked with a Numerical Relay, like its running time (which can be manually set), current clock time, and current date.
in Process industries.
the other three relays.
Instead, they were showing the wrong dates (from 6 months to 6 years) before the incident.
On enquiring, the team came to know that in both the relays date and time settings were modified by a plant technician post the occurrence of the fault.
After lengthy discussions with many personnel involved and sifting fault records minutely.
Eventually, we could zero-in on which records to interpret and based on that how can the team consult; a seemingly 10 minutes exercise lengthened to about 8 hours.
The retrieved data of the Fault Record was something like
February 2016 (Over Current)
September 2013 (Earth - Fault)
July 2015 (Over Current)
February 2016.
with Indian Standard Time whenever the auxiliary supply is turned on.
Like, Erroneous records of all faults and events and this erroneous analysis may lead to the re-occurrence of the same events which again leads to wastage of productive time.
The solution is to ensure that there is proper synchronization of the relay clock with DCS / GPS / SCADA.
This is helpful especially in the case, the auxiliary supply is out of service for a longer duration of time.
Also, checking relay parameters at regular intervals should be done to avoid such issues.
About the Author
is an Electrical Engineer with over 11 years of rich experience in Electrical Maintenance, Installation, Testing, and Commissioning of all major electrical equipment.
He is specialized in bringing down Energy Cost of a Plant by reducing electricity bills and increasing energy efficiency.
He also reduces plant breakdown costs by implementing proper maintenance activities during routine and shutdown.
Through these Case Studies, he shares his experience and challenges faced in his work routine with the readers of Circuit Digest.
article/important-parameters-to-consider-when-selecting-a-voltage-regulator
Important Parameters to Consider When Selecting a Voltage Regulator
use voltage regulator chips.
For example, in your smartphone, a voltage regulator is used to step-up or step-down the battery voltage for the components (like backlight LED, Mic, Sim Card, etc.) that requires higher or lower voltage than the battery.
Choosing the wrong voltage regulator can result in compromised reliability, higher power consumption, and even fried components.
Important Factors for Voltage Regulator Selection
is knowing about the input voltage and output voltage that you will be working with.
Linear voltage regulators need input voltage that is higher than the rated output voltage.
If the input voltage is less than the desired output voltage, then it leads to the condition of insufficient voltage that causes the regulator to drop out and provide unregulated output.
for a regulated output.
Input voltage below 7V will result in an unregulated output voltage.
that can be used for a range of output applications.
Dropout voltage is the difference between input and output voltage of the voltage regulator.
For example, min.
The input voltage for 7805 is 7V, and the output voltage is 5V, so it has a dropout voltage of 2V.
If the input voltage goes below, the output voltage (5V) + dropout voltage (2V) will result in an unregulated output that can damage your device.
So before selecting a voltage regulator, check the dropout voltage.
Dropout voltage varies with voltage regulators; for example, you can find a range of 5V regulators with different dropout voltage.
Linear regulators can be extremely efficient when they are operated with a very low input dropout voltage.
So if you are using a battery as a power source, then you can use LDO regulators for better efficiency.
Linear voltage regulators dissipate more power than switching voltage regulators.
Excessive power dissipation can cause battery drain, overheating, or damage to the product.
So if you are using a linear voltage regulator, first calculate the power dissipation.
For linear regulators, power dissipation can be calculated by:
Power = (Input Voltage ᾠOutput Voltage) x Current
You can use the switching voltage regulators instead of linear voltage regulators to avoid the power dissipation problem.
Efficiency is the ratio of output power to input power that is proportional to the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage.
So the efficiency of Voltage regulators is directly limited by the dropout voltage and quiescent current because of the higher the dropout voltage, the lower the efficiency.
For higher efficiency, drop out voltage and quiescent current must be minimized, and the voltage difference between input and output must be minimized.
The overall accuracy of a voltage regulator depends on line regulation, load regulation, reference voltage drift, error amplifier voltage drift, and temperature coefficient.
Typical linear regulators usually have an output voltage specification that guarantees the regulated output will be within 5% of nominal.
So if you are using the voltage regulator to power the digital ICs, then 5% tolerance is not a big concern.
Load regulation is defined as the circuit’s ability to maintain a specified output voltage under varying load conditions.
Load regulation is expressed as:
Load Regulation = Vout/ Iout
Line regulation is defined as the circuit’s ability to maintain the specified output voltage with the varying input voltage.
Line regulation is expressed as:
Load Regulation = Vout / Vin
, one should keep all the above factors in consideration,
article/tips-and-techniques-for-designing-small-circuit-boards-to-reduce-pcb-size
Tips and Techniques for Designing Small Circuit Boards to Shrink PCB Size
by comparing the tradeoffs and possible solutions to it.
Multi-Layer PCB for Reducing Track Space and Component Spacing
Designing the board in a double layer opens up the surface access to all components and provides the board spaces for routing the traces.
The board surface space can increase again if the board layer is increased more than the two layers, for example, four or six layers.
But, there is a drawback.
If the board is designed using two, four, or even more layers create huge complexity in terms of testing, repairs, and rework of a circuit.
than designing the same circuit in a bigger single or double layers board.
Generally, Power traces and Ground return path fill layers are identified as high current paths, thus they require thick traces.
Those high traces can be routed in the TOP or Bottom layers and the low current paths or signal layers can be used as internal layers in four layers PCBs.
The below image shows a 4 Layer PCB.
But there are generic tradeoffs.
The cost of multilayer PCB is higher than the single-layer boards.
Thus, it is essential to calculate the cost purpose before changing a single or double-layer board to four layers PCB.
But increasing the number of layers could dramatically change the size of the board.
Managing the Thermal Issues by changing Copper Thickness
As per the IPC2221A, a designer should use a minimum trace width for the required current paths, but the consideration should be taken for the total trace area.
In general, PCBs used to have the copper layer thickness of 1Oz (35um).
But the thickness of the copper can be increased.
Therefore, by using simple math, doubling the thickness to 2Oz (70um) could cut the trace size half as a wide same current capacity.
Other than this, 2Oz copper thickness can be beneficial for the PCB based heat sink too.
There is also the heavier copper capacity that can also be available that ranges from 4Oz to 10Oz.
The value of current that will flow through the trace is 1A.
The thickness of the copper is set as 1 Oz (35 um).
The rise of the temperature on the trace will be 10 degrees on 25 degrees Celsius ambient temperature.
The output of the trace width as per the IPC2221A standard is-
Now, in the same specification, if the copper thickness is increased, the trace width can be decreased.
The thickness that is required is only-
Component Package Selection
Component selection is a major thing in a circuit design.
There are the same but different package components available in electronics.
For example, a simple resistor with a rating of .125 Watt can be available in different packages, like 0402, 0603, 0805, 1210, etc.
with the same rating and the board space can be compressed.
We can reduce the package size of those components.
that are available for the production may have limitations to handle SMD packages smaller than the 0402.
Another drawback of the smaller components is the power rating.
Smaller packages than the 0603 could handle much lower current than the 0805 or 1210.
So, careful considerations are required to select the proper components.
In such a case, whenever the smaller packages cannot be used for the reduction of PCB sizes, one can edit the package footprint and could shrink the components pad as far as possible.
The designer may be able to squeeze things a little tighter by changing the footprints.
Due to the design tolerances, the available default footprint is a common footprint that could hold any version of the packages.
For example, the footprint of the 0805 packages is made in such a way that it can cover as many variations as possible for 0805.
The variations happen due to the difference of the manufacturing ability.
Different companies use different production machines that used to have different tolerances for the same 0805 package.
Thus, the default package footprints are slightly larger than needed.
as required.
The board size can be shrink by using SMD based Electrolytic capacitors too because they seemed to have smaller diameters than the through-hole components with the same rating.
New Age Compact Connecters
Another space-hungry component is the connectors.
The connectors use larger board space and the footprint also uses higher diameter pads.
Changing the connector types can be very useful if the current and voltage ratings permit.
The connector manufacturing company, for example, Molex or Wurth Electronics or any other big companies always provide multiple size based same type of connectors.
Thus, selecting the right size could save the cost as well as the board space.
Resistor Networks
are what is always required to protect the microcontroller from high current flow through the IO pins.
Therefore, more than 8 resistors, sometimes more than 16 resistors are required to be used as a series pass resistors.
Such a huge number of resistors add up much more space in the PCB.
This problem can be solved by using resistor networks.
A simple 1210 package based resistor network could save space for 4 or 6 resistors.
The below image is a 5 resistor in the 1206 package.
Stacked Packages Instead of Standard Packages
There are plenty of designs that require multiple transistors or even more than two MOSFETs for different purposes.
Adding up individual transistors or Mosfets could end up more space than using stacked packages.
also available that take up the space of only one Mosfet and could save a huge amount of board space.
These tricks can be applied to almost every component.
This leads to a smaller board space and the bonus point is, sometimes the cost of those components is lower than using individual components.
The above points are the possible way out for the reduction of PCB size.
However, the cost, complexity vs.
the PCB size always has some crucial decision-related tradeoffs.
One needs to select the exact path that is dependent on the targeted application or for that specific targeted circuit design.
article/what-is-embedded-sim-esim-technology-and-how-can-it-help-in-iot-product-designs
What is Embedded SIM (eSIM) Technology and how can it help with IoT Product Designs
, etc.
but while these technologies come with Pro-IoT features like low power and long-range, they are saddled with infrastructure and coverage challenges that push developers towards cellular (2G, 3G, 4G, etc.) based communication especially in applications where power is not much of a worry.
However, in line with the whip rat nature of communication protocols and IoT, while cellular IoT has the proven infrastructure and coverage to support global deployment, it is incredibly difficult to manage at scale because of several factors including the SIM Card requirements and the challenges surrounding it.
and other consumer device giants like Apple embedding it in different products.
For today’s article, we will examine this technology in relation to IoT.
We will go over its features, its current state, and potential impact on IoT.
What is an eSIM
) capable of supporting multiple network carrier profiles virtually embedded into it.
Unlike the regular SIM card, eSIMs are Software re-programmable.
This means you can change the entire contents of the SIM, including the international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI) and network carrier profiles, via software over the air, eradicating the need to swap SIM cards.
software can also be deployed.
How does eSIM work?
A basic explanation of how eSIMs work is that theSIMs are deployed along with the device and the user/manufacturer is provided with an interface through which they can remotely add, update, extend or delete multiple network operators
, there are two main components to eSIMs: the embedded UICC (hardware) which is embedded in the device during manufacturing and a Subscription Management platform (SM).
The subscription Management platform (SM) is made up of two key elements; the SM-SR (Subscription Management Secure Routing) and the SM-DP (subscription Management Data Preparation).
During the manufacturing or deployment process, the manufacturer or vendor (MNO, M2M Device, or Consumer electronics manufacturer, etc.) of the eUICC registers the SIMs with the SM-SR, which then maintains a secure connection with the eUICC to manage subscriptions.
Through the SM-SR, the eUICC can be reached with commands from the vendor or SM-DP, which is responsible for formating the profiles of MNOs into a format that is compatible with the eUICC.
To activate an MNO on the eUICC, a command, initiated one way (typically via barcode scanning) or the other by the user, is sent by the MNO to the SM-DP, which processes the command and downloads the MNO profile to the eUICC, while also providing an interface that allows the MNO to enables/disables a profile.
There was some level of debate on the applications of eSIMs in the early days with organizations like Motorola believing it was geared towards M2M industrial applications while organizations like Apple believed there was no reason why it shouldn’t feature in consumer products.
Presumably, as a result of this, to create something that suits both applications, the consortium (GSMA) approved two architectures for eSIMs;
M2M eSIM Architecture
Consumer Electronics eSIM Architecture
While both architectures support the reprogrammable features of eSIMs, the approach to realizing it (among other things) is different in both stacks.
For the Consumer electronics architecture, a client-controlled model is implemented, such that, the end-user of the device has control over remote network provisioning and management of operator profiles.
For the M2M architecture, however, a server-controlled model that allows remote provisioning and management of mobile network operators from a backend infrastructure/Central server is implemented.
This makes sense as human interaction on the M2M level is reduced and the remote upgrades and changes are the key features that fit IoT use cases.
Key Features of eSIMs
Most people will definitely agree that the most appealing feature of eSIMs is the flexibility with which it allows users to switch between MNOs without having to change physical hardware, thanks to its over-the-air re-programmability, and its ability to navigate multiple profiles from different operators on the same device.
This, however, translates into several other features that affect (positively, I believe) the device in a number of ways.
Some of these features include;
From the cost of the hardware like the SIM Tray and its supporting circuits to the cost of the SIMs themselves among others, the classical SIM Cards present a total cost that of ownership that is far greater than eSIMs.
All accredited partners in the GSMA ecosystem are expected to comply with the released standards and architecture, thus ensuring interoperability.
The shape, size, and need for an opening are requirements of classical SIM Cards that influences the form factor of the device in which they are used.
With the chip-like nature of eSIMs, about half the size of Nano SIMs and don’t require a socket, designers will have more flexibility with the size and form factor of devices.
Even though they implement cellular communication which is not very power-friendly, eSiMs operate on less power compared to the Classical SIM Cards.
One other obvious feature of eSIMs is their physical security.
Having the chip embedded in the device makes it nearly impossible to tamper with or remove for misuse.
Asides this, a comprehensive security accreditation scheme (SAS) is shipped along with the eSIM framework.
Potential Impact of eSIM on IoT
While eSIMs are going to revolutionize everything about the telecommunication industry from operations to service rendering, it will also have a significant impact on IoT.
There are three main areas of cellular IoT that can be potentially impacted by eSIMs;
This is probably the biggest problem with cellular IoT via classical SIM Cards.
While the coverage via cellular connectivity, in general, is vast, the quality of coverage by each MNO differs from location to location.
For this reason, to fully leverage the connectivity features of Cellular communications, users have to go through the difficult and operationally intensive tasks of switching between SIM cards which puts a limitation on IoT solutions.
However, with eSIMs, IoT solution providers can switch device profiles quickly and securely Over-the-air or even automate the process, so connectivity changes can be implemented based on criteria like signal strength, tariffs, etc.
Deploying Cellular IoT across multiple devices can be quite the hassle as sim managements could get really complex quite fast as the number of devices increases.
With the flexibility interoperability offered by eSIMs, this can be better managed.
Using a single SIM from the network provider with the largest coverage or Physically swapping SIM cards for improved coverage, introduces reliability challenges.
The provider with the largest coverage area may not have coverage in your deployment location, and sim cards get damaged or fail during the swapping process.
With eSIMs and Over-the-air “SIM swapsᾠthe system becomes more reliable and durable as the mechanical design considerations for the device are simplified.
Applications and Use cases for eSIM
While the impact of eSIMs is expected across every IoT application area, some sectors are expected to be huge beneficiaries.
Some of these sectors include-
With the “connected carᾠParadigm rapidly becoming mainstream, eSIMs have the potential to provide the seamless in-car Connectivity needed to allow users to enjoy all the features of the vehicles.
Asides for connectivity, quick OTA updates could also potentially revolutionize how ownership transfer is implemented.
While most agriculture-related applications employ LPWAN protocols like LoRa, a connectivity backhaul like Cellular connectivity is often still required to get the data to the device cloud.
Due to the location of most farms, the signal strength of MNOs may vary.
With eSIMs, farmers can switch between MNOs without hassles.
Sensors that track and monitor the conditions of different moving objects like cars, trucks, shipments, etc.
can be made smaller have longer battery life, and unlimited coverage area (Switching between multiple MNOs), thanks to eSIMs.
Technically, every single IoT application that is better implemented with cellular IoT will experience performance increase, thanks to eSIMs.
iSIM
Like every new technology, adaptations of the eSIM technology are gradually coming to life with the most recent ones being iSIM.
is a technology built on the functionalities of eSIMs.
While eSIMs are usually just a dedicated chip which still requires to be connected to the device’s processor, the iSIM combines the processor core and the eSIM features into a single system-on-chip (SoC) unit.
It was developed with the goal of further reducing the footprint of SIMs, as by integrating it into the processor, the device can become even smaller, and cheaper, thanks to the reduction in BOM.
SOC.
Conclusion
in the works, and the slow rate with which different providers might attain maximum coverage across different cities, eSIMs will definitely come in handy in ensuring IoT solutions leverages unreservedly on the speed, it is poised to bring.
Asides improving connectivity, eSIMs will also introduce new business models that will contribute to how the development of IoT solutions is approached.
article/comparision-guide-to-efficiently-fabricate-electronic-enclosures-for-your-products
Comparison Guide to Efficiently Fabricate Electronic Enclosures for your Products
and you are thinking of scaling up and selling your product in the mainstream market.
While you can easily source the PCB’s, sensors, and other electronic/electrical components, you often stumblegetting a casing, especially when the product needs a customized casing or when the product interacts with the user on a regular basis.
, how to choose the right type of casing, and where to look for a service provider.
Since most of you will be looking for a cost-effective, durable, easily manufactured casing, we will focus on plastic as it will do a great job for the aforementioned features.
The most common ways of getting your product a casing is-
Standard housing & panels
3D printing
Injection Molding
Further to the information in the article, we will evaluate each method with the below Digital IR thermometer enclosure (complex shape, intricate details) to help you get an idea of the real-world scenario.
Cost is proportional to the quantity.
However, you can negotiate for a better deal when the quantity is significant
Cost is proportional to printing time.
Ranges from 300-600 INR per hour dependent on the material (post-processing additional)
High initial cost for tool design and very cheap product manufacturing cost.
If the quantity is significant, the tool design cost shall be distributed in the per-unit cost.
Post design, the time required to print each part is proportional to the quantity.
Post design, the tool(mold) design and tool manufacturing takes some significant time (from one week to a month).
Once the tool is ready you can manufacture hundreds or even thousands of products in a day.
Very low to No
Once you finalize the mold design, customization is not possible.
Casings for standard products.
Complex and intricate structures possible but with some additional charge
Mostly good.
But, cannot be customized.
Coarse & Layered
Exception:
Acetone treated ABS parts
Glossy and Matt finish
Feasible for less than 1000 quantity
Feasible for 1000+ quantity
Standard - Readymade Casing
You can find them in local online sites as well as in many international websites like Alibaba or Aliexpress.
Some sellers can help you with some customization if you have a certain minimum quantity.
If your product is similar to something that exists on the market already, then you can use this sneaky way to trace back to the manufacturer of the product’s enclosure and try to negotiate a deal.
Coming back to our thermometer example casing, we can't find any such casing on any website.
However, you are lucky if you can find an injection molding company that already is manufacturing a similar casing that will suit your need.
The big disadvantage here is that your product will not look unique on its own since your casing vendor will also sell to anyone across the world.
If the readymade casing suits your need, then-
Quicker deliveries
No need of any investment of time and money
Better finish quality
No or very minimum customization
No material options
3D printing
is a great way to kickstart your product.
3D printing is great for prototyping.
Initially, you will be looking for only a few quantities (probably a few hundred) and you wish to test the market for your product before pouring in a significant investment.
It does not take much time and cost to have your product printed once the CAD design is ready.
that we have built earlier for inspiration.
CAD designing of parts ℠Slicing (in slicing software) ℠3D printing ℠Post-processing
First, you prepare a 3D model of the casing
Import the 3D model into the slicing software such as Cura, Simple3D & Slic3R
Slicing is where your 3D model is converted to layers and codes that the 3D printer can understand.
You can visualize the supports and also estimate the time required for printing by tuning various printing parameters.
This is then followed by 3D printing & Post-processing.
Post-processing involves removing of supports, flash, and chemical treatment for the surface finish in case of ABS material.
Many 3D printing service providers get your design via their website or email, print it, and send the printed product to you - all this within a week's time.
Hassle-free! Isn't it.
3D printing service providers will charge you based on the time required for printing your product and the per hour rate varies based on the type of material you choose.
It is important for you to be aware of some important factors while deciding to go for 3D printing.
Those factors are materials of the product and factors affecting the processing time, thereby your cost.
Currently, the two most common methods of 3D printing are-
, is an additive manufacturing process where an object is built by selectively depositing melted material in a predetermined path layer-by-layer.
The materials used are thermoplastic polymers and come in a filament form.
Standard parts
Part with Intricate surfaces (jewelry & small parts)
Small electronic enclosures
Cheaper
Faster
Generally coarse & layered
Smooth in case of acetone treated ABS
Smooth
Most Common: PLA, ABS,
Nylon, HIPS, PET, PC
Standard resin, Clear resin, Tough or Durable resin & High-temperature resin.
For now, let's stick to FDM as it is more widely available and suits our discussion.
While designing the product, it is important to understand the limitations of the 3D printers available in the market.
It is important that you get an understanding of the working of the FDM 3D printer.
In case you are not great at CAD designing, I advise you to take professional 3D design services and in some cases, the 3D printing service providers themselves offer 3D design services.
These services are chargeable - mostly on a per hour basis.
The most important design considerations are
If you have multiple parts that assemble into a final object, then you have to think of the provisions to make to fit the parts together - parts matching, screws, etc.
The reality is that FDM 3D printers are not great in printing overhanging or steep inclined surfaces.
You get rough surfaces, you need support, which you have to post-process.
: Complexity means intricacy such as thin parts, tiny features, and very complex shapes.
While 3D printers are meant to do all these with ease, sometimes they don't work out well.
Here are the factors you have to keep in mind while proceeding from design to the 3D printing process.
All the process considerations have an impact on the time of print and the quality of the finished object.
All these parameters can be visualized and analyzed through the slicing software’s (Cura, Simple3D & Slic3R)
The image below shows why.
Try to orient the part in a way that requires less support and less hanging.The best orientation will result in a better finish and a shorter printing time.
Layer thickness is a measure of the layer height of each successive addition of material in the 3D printing process in which layers are stacked.
Lower the layer thickness, longer the time taken for printing, and better the finish quality.
The below image gives you a perspective of the relationship between layer thickness and print time.
Infill density is the amount of filament printed inside the object, and this directly relates to the strength, weight, and printing duration of your print.
In our case - enclosure, we won't come across infill density as our part is a shell and not a solid object.
In case you have a solid part, then more the infill density, more the strength, and more the print time.
: 3D printing support structures are not part of the model.
They are used to support parts of the model during printing.
This means that once printing is over, you have the additional task of removing the structures before the model is ready-to-go.
There are other factors such as print speed, shell thickness, nozzle diameter, extrusion temperature and raft which you need not worry about as these will be set at optimum levels by the service provider
ABS parts can be treated with Acetone after the 3D printing process to get a glossy look.
Below is the comparison of the Acetone treated ABS & non treated ABS objects.
The message I want to convey is that go for a print quality which is optimal in terms of functionality and aesthetics.
Softwares Used for design
: Sketchup, Blender 3D, Open SCAD.
: Solidworks, CATIA, NX-CAD, 3DS Max
Cura, Simple3D, Slic3R
The cost of 3D printing depends on your material choice and the time required to print a product.
The cost usually ranges from 300 - 600INR.
Further, add ons such as ABS acetone treatment will be charged extra (50-100INR).
that we build earlier using a 3D printed enclosure.
Layer height: 0.25mm, Print speed 60mm/s.
Since we will go for ABS material without any post-processing, this would cost us somewhere around 1200 INR for a print.
Freedom of Design
Rapid prototyping - freedom for iterations
Print on Demand and pay only for what you print
Limited Materials Choices
Limited Build Volume
Finish quality
As the 3D printing services are more readily available, the prices for 3D printing can come down.
Azul 3D ‘High Area Rapid Printing technologyᾠis a revolutionary SLA method but that can print a layer of the entire bed at a time.
However, it is going to take some time to reach the market.
Injection Molding
Injection molding is the most common mass manufacturing method in the industry and best suited when you want to manufacture thousands of products.
If you are looking at any product made out of plastic around you, it's probably made through Injection Molding.
It takes a lot of time and money to produce the first product, but once that's done, you can manufacture hundreds or even thousands of products in a day at a very cheap price.
How the process flows for Injection molding?
Product design ℠Tool design (mold design) ℠Trial runs ℠Mass manufacturing ℠Post processing
just as how you did for the 3d printing - either by yourself or through a professional CAD designer.
(mostly Injection molding service provider) along with other details such as choice of material, quantity, and type of finishing.
The service provider designs the tool (i.e.
mold) and analyzes the matching of parts, mold flow, and all other parameters as per your product design and the specifications that you want.
Once that's ready, the service provider goes for a trial run and does corrections if required.
Finally, he proceeds for mass manufacturing.
Post-processing involves actions such as removing flash & gates and polishing.
Mold/Tool is a metal block that has the negative/opposite profile of the object you want to manufacture.
It is composed of a core block and cavity block along with other supporting parts such as a cooling system, ejector pin, etc.
In the process of Injection molding, the heated plastic flows inside the cavity and cools down.
The part is then automatically ejected and then are post-processed, activities such as removing flashes & gates and polishing.
Materials used in Injection Molding
Most of the commercial plastic materials can be used in Injection molding.
So, the property of the finished product will have the property of the material you choose.
Eg: Polycarbonate and polystyrene for transparent products, Polypropylene (PP & PET) are good for food-grade plastic materials, Polyetherimide (PEI) for high heat resistance.
A lot of factors come into play based on the finishing and the intricacy of the product - for example-
If you need a very fine quality, then the tool design involves certain features that add to the cost.
If there are very intricate structures, which render conventional tool manufacturing difficult, then the toolmaker uses unconventional methods which adds to the cost.
All you need do is be clear about what you want -design, quantity, finishing, and material.
Cost consideration for Injection Molding
Go with the service provider who gives an end to end solution i.e.
from tool designing to product manufacturing to avoid coordination issues.
The service provider will take care of all the factors as per your design, quantity, material, and finishing requirements.
There are two ways in which you can go about the cost structure.
We will take our IR digital thermometer as an example to analyze the difference in the cost structure.
Separate cost for tool design & tool manufacturing and separate per unit cost for product manufacturing, which involves material cost, machinery cost, labour cost, etc.Wherein the service provider charges you for the design and manufacturing of the tool separately.
And he charges for the products separately.
In this case, you incur a significant initial fixed cost (Eg: 1-2 lac INR) and a per-unit product cost (Eg: 10-50 INR).
Per unit finished product which includes both the product manufacturing cost and tool cost.
In this case, the fixed initial cost of tool design and manufacturing is distributed across the quantity of the product.
Eg: This cost(eg.
2 lac INR) is distributed into the total quantity( 5000 pieces) that you order in addition to the product manufacturing cost (eg.
20 INR).
So 200000 INR /5000 units = 40 INR(tool cost) + 20 INR(product cost) = 60 INR (total cost)
This cost structure relieves the burden of the initial tool cost and makes the cost of the casing variable.
Advantages of Molding
Best for large product quantity
Good finishing - glossy finish or matt finish
Wide material choice
Disadvantages of Molding
High initial time & Cost
Bonus Topic
When placing your products in the mainstream market, you might have to design and manufacture the product to be with certain Ingress Protection and Impact Protection.
This is to effectively communicate the reliability of the product to your customers.
IP (or "Ingress Protection") ratings are international standards that are used to define levels of sealing effectiveness of electrical enclosures against intrusion from foreign bodies (tools, dirt, etc.) and moisture.
IK Rating
IK ratings indicate the degrees of protection provided by electrical enclosures against external mechanical impacts.
The IK rating scale identifies the ability of an enclosure to resist impact energy levels measured in joules (J).
article/how-to-properly-terminate-an-unused-op-amp-to-avoid-noise-and-poewr-related-issues
How to Properly Terminate an unused OP-Amp to Avoid Noise and Power Related Issues
, there are situations where one or more op-amps are left unused, this causes undesirable behaviour in one or all of those unused op-amps thus impacting total system performance.
So, in this tutorial, I am going to discuss
How to properly terminate an unused op-amp & it’s added benefits.
How a poorly configured op-amp can lead to various issues in the circuit.
And in the end, there will be a section dedicated to testing a practical circuit.
So, without further ado, let's get started.
What is terminating an Op-amp?
After hearing the term terminate, if you are thinking about killing the op-amp, let me tell you that’s not it.
By terminating an op-amp, I meant to configure an op-amp in a way that enables the device to operate in a stable manner.
Why terminating an op-amp is important?
Leaving unused op-amp pins floating will create unexpected voltage shifts which may result in unexpected behaviour in the circuit.
With a proper configuration, RFI noise can be drastically reduced.
Power consumption & power dissipation in the IC can also be minimized.
What Parameters Should be Considered?
Exceeding the input common-mode will cause damage in the input section of the op-amp.
it’s defined as the max voltage range that can be applied between the non-inverting & the inverting input pins.
Exceeding these ranges can also damage the input section of the op-amp.
Output saturation occurs when the output of the op-amp is driven near the supply rails, and a saturated op-amp will always draw more current and also dissipates more power compared to an unsaturated op-amp.
To avoid output saturation and EOS, we need to limit output swing as much as possible.
A lower gain setting can prevent output saturation.
As any op-amp has a very large open-loop gain, closing the loop is important.
Negative feedback is a very easy and common method to achieve stable output,
That is basically all the parameters that you need to consider before configuring the op-amp.
Testing the Circuit
IC from Texas Instruments, but before that let's look at some of the above-mentioned parameters that we need to consider.
Let's look at some of the input specs of this op-amp:
is specified, this rating is the max input voltage range for the non-inverting and the inverting input of the op-amp which must not be exceeded.
Now that's cleared up, let's look into our first test circuit,
To test the circuit, I am using my meco 450B+ mustimeter, and meco 108B+ mustimeter, here the meco 450B+ mustimer is measuring the current, and the meco 108B+ mustimeter is measuring the output voltage.
The above figure shows you the first test circuit that I am going to test.
But first, let's look at how much current the op-amp draws when it's simply powered on.
As you can see from the above image it is about 5.23 mA
, and the other pin of the circuit is floating, let’s see how much current it is drawing.
As you can see, the op-amp draws about 18.6 mA of current.
In the first op-amp configuration, non-inverting and the inverting terminal of the op-amp is connected to ground and the output is left floating,
With the configuration done my meco 108B+ mustimeter is connected to the output showing voltage, and my meco 450B+ is connected in series showing current, as you can see from the above image the output is high, and the op-amp now is in a saturated state, thus it's dissipating more power.
This is the case for this particular op-amp in my breadboard with other op-amps.
You may see the output of the op-amp is low because of the input offset voltage of the op-amp.
In some cases, the output will jump high and then come down low.
In other very high precision instrumental amplifiers, this configuration will surely violate the input common-mode range, so there is a high chance that the input section may get damaged.
that you can find on the internet.
The practical output of this circuit is shown above.
As you can see in this configuration, the op-amp is also in a saturated state, and its drawing current like the first one.
In some cases, you may see that the op-amp will draw hundreds of mA of current because the op-amp is violating the input common-mode voltage range for both the inputs.
With the second configuration done, we have our last configuration.
The practical output is shown below:
Although the current consumption is higher for this particular op-amp, with this configuration, it's possible to meet all the major recommended operating conditions specified by the datasheet.
the op-amp is stable with a low gain
We have successfully met the input specification recommended by the datasheet
The output voltage is not saturated
Power consumption and power is also stable
for detailed discussion.
article/introduction-to-hart-highway-addressable-remote-transducer-communication-protocol
Introduction to HART ᾠHighway Addressable Remote Transducer Communication Protocol
became mainstream.
The values in a temperature sensor at the heart of a crankshaft sending measurements to control the motor drive relay etc.
was clear, and one of the communication protocols used in achieving that was the HART Protocol.
Overview
like RS485 and event to which is also popularly used in the industries.
which could only transmit one parameter or measured value.
With HART, Industrial automation efforts could achieve bi-directional communications that fixed the drawbacks of the 4-20mA, but also retain its infrastructure since the HART Protocol can send digital signals by superimposing it on the analog signals without distortion or interference.
The effect of the above is the creation of two simultaneous communication channels: the 4-20mA analog signal and a digital signal.
This combination is why the protocol is referred to as a Hybrid Protocol.
Typical applications like instrumentation devices could use the 4-20mA signal to send the primary measured value, and use the superimposed digital signal to send information.
The support for 4-20mA based devices meant companies could continue using their legacy hardware.
This, along with the protocol becoming “Openᾬ drove the adoption levels of the protocol high, till it became the de-facto standard in the industry
Working of HART Communication Protocol
HART Communication occurs between two HART-enabled devices, typically a smart field device and a control or monitoring system.
As described earlier, devices based on the protocol transmit analog signal using the existing 4-20mA approach, and digital signals by superposing the signal (as an alternating current signal) on the 4-20mA analog signal, using the Bell 202 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) standard.
The FSK procedure involves superposing the sinewaves of two frequencies, typically 1200Hz and 2200Hz, which represent the bits (1 and 0 respectively) of the data being sent.
The use of FSK ensures that the average value of the two frequencies is always zero, ensuring the analog signal is not affected by the digital signal.
Network Configuration Modes
To meet the needs of various applications, devices under HART Protocol can be configured to operate in two major modes;
Point-to-Point Mode
Multi-Drop Mode
1. Point-to-Point Network Mode
is provided in the image below.
2. Multi-Drop Network Mode
is illustrated in the image below.
Communication Modes
, is required to be designated as the Master while other(s), usually field devices like sensors or actuators, are designated as slaves.
However, the manner through which the slaves communicate with the master depends on the communication mode to which the network is configured.
A network of HART protocol compliant devices can be set up to communicate in two modes, namely;
Request-Response communication Mode
Burst Mode
In the Request-Response Communication mode, slave devices only transmit information when a request is issued by the Master device.
While this mode has its disadvantages especially reduced communication speed (2-3 data updates per second), it helps keep the protocol simple, and effective, easy to implement.
To make room for variation in application requirements, the protocol has another communication mode called the “BurstᾠMode.
In this mode, the slave devices can send a single piece of information, continuously, without the need for repeated requests from the master.
This mode offers a faster communication speed with up to 3-4 updates per second, and it is typically used in scenarios where more than one HART device is required to listen to communication from the HART Loop.
which is only connected to the HART loop for a short period.
Benefits
Some of the advantages of HART protocol over others in its class include;
The use of a 4-20mA analog signal, for instance, allows the flow of information in only one direction (Transmitter to the receiver).
With HART Communication, data can travel in both directions.
Traditional communication channels like the 4-20mA allow the communication of only a single process variable with no room for validation, but With HART, you are able to get up to 40 additional information along with the process variable.
Some examples of additional information that could be gleaned from HART-based devices include;
Device Status & Diagnostic Alerts
Process Variables & Units
Loop Current & % Range
Basic Configuration Parameters
Manufacturer & Device Tag
Using a combination of this extra information,HART devices can self-report issues with their configuration or operations to the master/host device.
This helps reduce the need for routine checkups and could be very useful for predictive maintenance.
In digital mode, a single pair of wires can handle multiple variables.
For example, one transmitter could handle inputs from multiple sensors
Everything related to HART was handed over by Emerson to the HART Communications Foundation, as such the standards are open and not specific to one vendor.
This means there's no danger of getting locked into a limited vendor-specific or regional "standards."
HART is currently regarded as the most widely supported protocol for the process industry across the word.
It is so popular that the probability of an industrial device being HART Compatible is almost 1.
HART-compliant devices and host systems can work together regardless of vendor, models, and other compatibility/interoperability issues that plague networks.
Even host devices that were not designed to handle the digital information from a HART device will still have some level of interoperability with communications through the 4-20 mA analog signal.
WirelessHART
, which is offering completely new possibilities with wireless transmission of HART Information.
It is the first standardized(IEC62591) wireless communication protocol in the field of process automation.
Unlike the Regular HART Protocol, it, at this stage, only supports communication over the digital signal as the analog communication is not provided since no connection cable is used.
Currently, there are two different WirelessHART Solutions including;
A WirelessHART Adapter for enhancing existing HART Devices
A self-powered WirelessHART Transmitter.
WirelessHART can be used on existing wired instruments to collect the vast amount of information that was previously stranded in the instrument, and also provides for a cost-effective, simple, and reliable way to deploy new points of measurement and control without the wiring costs.
interview/autonomous-electric-aerial-vehicles-are-the-future-of-transportation-says-satyanarayanan-chakravarthy-co-founder-of-eplane-company
Autonomous Electric Aerial Vehicles are the Future of Transportation says Satyanarayanan Chakravarthy, Co-Founder of ePlane Company
According to the UN, by 2050, almost 2.5 billion people will be the part of urban population and we all know that the current housing and transportation infrastructure is inadequate and is not going to help meet the needs of the rising number of people.
To do so, we need to expand our cities speedily and economically.
Besides, to combat the transportation issue, there is a need to divert our focus to urban aerial mobility that will help cities grow laterally.
Who knows, in days to come, we find ourselves waking up amidst green trees and chirps, tens of miles away from the dense city centers.
The future has a lot in store for us.
Besides, breakfast, groceries, etc.
being drone-delivered, you will be able to fly to work and will not get stuck in a traffic jam.
, a fully autonomous compact electric aerial vehicle that can take off from anywhere and can be used to deliver items, the company is sure to bring a revolution in aerial mobility.
and specializes in the propulsion of aircraft and rockets.
He holds a Bachelor’s degree in Aerospace Engineering from IIT Madras and Master of Science in Aerospace Engineering degree (1992) and Doctor of Philosophy (1995) from the Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.
Not just that, he has been a passionate teacher for over a couple of decades at IIT Madras and a researcher on combustion, laser diagnostics, etc.
He persevered to establish a large center for combustion R&D center, NCCRD, at IIT Madras, before turning his attention to electric aircraft propulsion lately.
He is passionate about working with industry in solving real-world problems and in developing products for societal impact.
Read on to know what he has to say about ePlane, Ek Hanz, and more.
A lot of rapid changes are happening around us in the energy and mobility spaces.
Thermal power is fast being replaced by renewables, and electric vehicles are fast replacing combustion vehicles.
As an aerospace engineer by basic training and with propulsion as my specialization, I asked myself, if I am not going to look at electric propulsion for aircraft at this point in time, what else would I do! Let go of the past, no matter how glorious it has been and embraces the future, no matter how uncertain it is, is the mantra.
This is the motivation that led to my founding the ePlane Company.
Not only that, in fact, in the past year, I am the first to my knowledge to offer a full-fledged semester-long course on Electric Aircraft Propulsion, twice over the two semesters, and I have got the lecturers video-recorded the second time, to be uploaded on YouTube after the edits!
In my view, this is reasonably possible mainly with hybrid aerial vehicles ᾠhybrid not as in propulsion by combustion and electric, but in the sense of a combination of VTOL with fixed wings, i.e.
take off like a drone but fly forward like a plane! It would have to be fully electric to keep it simple and relatively inexpensive if we are to populate the skies with air-taxis for people’s daily commutes.
ePlane got off the ground first in our minds!All these crucial decisions ᾠwhy should it be all-electric, why not hybrid propulsion between electric and combustion engine, is it just a fad or a fetish to go all-electric to look ironical coming from a leading combustion expert or does it really make techno-economic sense (that’s a lot of soul-searching!), why does it have to be a VTOL, why does it have to be a VTOL-fixed wing hybrid, why a two-seater, why autonomous, what would be an appropriate price point for the Indian market, etc.
Each of these had to be ideated and debated, and genuine answers had to be evolved for ourselves, instead of just looking at what others are doing.
Because we are acutely conscious of the Indian market and the urban mobility situation we are in.
India is particularly in a sweet spot for embracing eVTOLs for urban air mobility (UAM) unlike China, which in my opinion seems to have peaked slightly too early ahead of the mobility transformations, we are witnessing today and has gone ahead with massive infrastructure investments that could be obviated with the new tech! I have coined a term for “defrastructureᾡThe situation with advanced nations is similar, with all the highways and flyovers already in place, their mobility pain point per person is not as painful as in India.
For India today, UAM seems to be a “must-haveᾬ not a “nice to haveᾬ unlike other places.
And, yet being an extremely cost-sensitive market, we need to put the best out there, so a lot about the ePlane is in configuring it just right.
NCCRD has fast developed into a cauldron of ultra-deep tech startups and projects, many of which I am proudly the part of, such as Agnikul, Aerostrovilos, X2fuels, Tan90, hyperloop, space gun, etc.
which synergistically energizes ePlane with its space and facilities.
We are incubated at the IITM Incubation Cell, which opens up a lot of exposure to the external stakeholders and business and technical mentors.
IITM itself is a beehive of an entrepreneurship ecosystem, with the CFI, Nirmaan, E-Cell, GDC, etc., besides NCCRD.
in a single charge of the battery pack.
It falls under the “smallᾠcategory of UAVs and its flight altitude is restricted to 120 m by civil aviation regulations.
It is fully autonomous in the sense, it can navigate itself with waypoints as well as to detect and avoid obstacles along its course.
where the rotors would aid the wing in additional lift generation synergistically, and the wing would aid the rotors during the climb and descent phases.
These two aspects enable an extended range for the Ek-Hanz when compared to a simple juxtaposition of the vertical rotors and the wings together.
are either too heavy or of poorer range/resolution for the speeds involved and the response times required, but this is an emerging area, so we are open to improving our autonomous flight package by reconfiguring it as specs of the components improve.
While we have developed simulations of waypoint navigation with obstacle avoidance in a typical flight environment, these are insufficient for evolving ML to be deployed in realistic flights.
We are in the process of flight tests, and gathering a lot of flight data to develop learning datasets.
The ML can then be adopted in the simulation environments first before getting on to a flight system.
It is yet to be seen if certification standards can be evolved for this purpose, so it will take time through the year or later to develop a sense of its complete adoption.
One specific aspect that could find acceptance is a computer vision-based landing tightly at a particular spot with marks like they have for helipads.
Machine learning is not mandatory for autonomous flights per se, including obstacle avoidance, but it would be a ‘good to haveᾠfeature, so the two should not be mixed up with each other.
in an aerodynamic environment instead of a mere juxtaposition of the two with their independent flow fields.
So, the question of how the flow field over one affects that over the other has been taken into consideration in order to augment the lift produced and decrease the drag incurred by the combination when compared to the two units acting independently.
Fundamentally, most other drones do not operate the vertical rotors during a forward flight in order to save on energy consumption, but an optimum level of their operation leads to further energy savings! The rotors can then be used for additional control against gusts and finer adjustments, which offers redundancy in controls as well.
The Qualcomm outing has been a big boost to eplane as a validation.
Plus, we have had the opportunity to explore their flight stack, smart-cams, and other products for our use.
We have developed a combination of hardware and written software to integrate those, which could lead to patents being filed.The QDIC journey has been exciting, with workshops conducted by them at different locations for the cohort we are part of.
We also look forward to the opportunity with investors that Qualcomm itself would open up for us.Their launch of the cohort at the Startup India office in the august presence of the Secretary of Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology provided very good visibility to us.
Qualcomm engineers and managers of the Design Innovation Challenge program have been very pleasant to work with.
It is definitely one program, I would encourage a lot of deep tech hardware startups to consider looking towards.
As India is fast developing, there is rampant urbanization.
With infrastructure development being hard to keep pace with this trend, people clamour to stay clustered to where amenities are concentrated, so it results in huge traffic congestion.
Consequently, people want to stay at home and let things get to them by ordering online.
The food delivery business alone has been growing 300% in the last few years! This is unparalleled anywhere.
This is where the Ek Hanz will be the most useful.
The retail e-commerce business does not require AAVs for last-mile delivery but could witness use for mid-mile, i.e.
from godowns to fulfillment centers.
For this, a larger payload-capable AAV, namely, our Do Hanz, the next bigger vehicle would be very much appropriate.
Lastly, although goods movement is a bigger market than people's movement, it’s people who really matter, so our ultimate goal would be the ePlane that enables urban air mobility by means of air taxis.
And, needless to say, it could transport large cargo across the city for logistics companies too.
I foresee that the long-range, we are typically focusing on for our aerial vehicles would ultimately enable decongesting cities and spread services to be available easily in far-flung areas beyond the urban sprawl.
The market size for all of this can be obtained easily in terms of billions of dollars from reports of consulting firms and other studies, but it is the above philosophy of how to view these trends and enable their reversal through our tech that’s exciting!
for such long-distance and the fast-moving vehicle was a challenge.
The no-permission no-takeoff (NPNT) protocol mandated by the Indian regulatory authority, namely, the Directorate General of Civil Aviation is another facet we had to develop along the way, both in terms of hardware and software implementation.
In fact, we are still developing mobile network-based long-distance communications for remote piloting (for manual intervention) and video feed to ground station for live feedback on the flight during its course, as an alternative or a redundant measure.
as well as the attempted combination of plastic 3D-printed non-load bearing structural elements with carbon fiber sheets, tubes, and pre-pregs.
We have 3D printers in-house for these trials.
The IIT Madras technological support base and entrepreneurial ecosystem of startups come in handy to try out different options for the first time on a configuration such as ours.
Timing is the key to the success of startups! We are at the cusp of easing of regulations of unmanned autonomous aerial vehicles and are glad to be a part of pushing those boundaries.
Through this process, the outlook is bright on customer identification and acquisition, partnering in demonstrating user flights to regulatory bodies, and in carrying out commercial pilots.
While there, deepening our focus on developing subsystems such as motors, customizing battery packs, flight controllers, communications, sensors, computer vision algorithms, etc.
and graduating to ducted fans for the next bigger level AAVs is all part of a fascinating journey that we have embarked upon.
These expanding opportunities improve our value proposition to investors, which is a direct metric of our success at this stage.
article/top-ai-startups-to-watch-out-in-2020
Popular AI startups to watch out for in 2020
and understood its outstanding phenomenon and groundbreaking technology that is strongly transforming how business operations take place across various business verticals.
From simple analytics to complex space engineering, AI has brought in great transformations.
Almost every industry, be it healthcare, finance, supply chain, etc.
has made infrastructural changes in a way to get adept with AI.
There is a majority percent of companies that have understood the tremendous potential of AI and are making optimum use of this technology.
opening up.
Many startups have seen the booming response and are making great profits besides making a big impact on the industry.
On the other hand, some are still in the early stages of development.
1. Fetch.ai
for decentralized problem-solving.
The entire team of engineers and forward-thinking technology researchers at Fetch.ai are working on the convergence of blockchain, AI, and multi-agent systems.
delivers the predictions and infrastructure to power the future economy.
Their core technology is successfully revolutionizing many industries, thereby improving efficiency through optimization of existing systems.
and electric vehicle infrastructure, transport and mobility, and other projects like Smart cities, smart homes, intelligent autonomous supply chains, etc.
2. Hero Labs
, cutting-edge HD ultrasonic technology, etc.
are some of the key features of Sonic.
3. Odin Vision
for endoscopic procedures.
The team uses AI-enabled application for gastroenterology.
Creating a suite of tools that support doctors to improve detection and diagnosis of disease, Odin Vision is doing wonders in the medical field.
Their award-winning, deep learning technology has been developed by academic and clinical experts at University College London who have been leading this research field for the past 20 years.
4. DataRobot
democratizes data science and automates the end-to-end process for building, deploying, and maintaining AI at scale.
5. DeepMap
is a company that aims to accelerate safe autonomy by providing the world's best HD mapping and localization services.
The growing team of experienced engineers and product visionaries collectively has built mapping technologies in use.
It has provided mapping technology to some of the major brands in the automobile sector.
6. Wingman.ai
is a company that builds next-generation AI agents to improve and empower the overall experience.
Wingman is a personal AI agent that serves and empowers people.The company focuses on building next-generation AI agents that will serve humans to enhance their productive and creative potential.
The team combines RL and DRL agents with semantics and relational reasoning components to understand human goals and directives.
7. OpenAI
is a research laboratory in San Francisco, California that aims to ensure that Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) benefits all of humanity.
OpenAI is governed by the board of OpenAI Nonprofit that works on advancing AI capabilities, safety, and policy.
OpenAI builds free software for training, benchmarking, and experimenting with AI, and much more.
8. Move.ai
is a company that combines industry computer vision, AI, and machine learning to create enterprise software solutions from real-time performance data in the field of entertainment and sport.
The company builds vision software to instantly generate performance data (speed, acceleration, distance, shapes, etc.) from video feeds in any sport.
Move.ai uses one camera to generate instant movement data across speed, distance, ball tracking, and player tracking and body form analysis, which can plug into any graphics engine or third-party API.
9. DeepSync
is a company that is making audio production ten times faster and cheaper.
It simply learns how you speak and saves hours of manual recording.
Deepsync's algorithms are designed to learn from the complexity of voice and capture a million little details to make your voice unique.
It then speaks exactly like you.
10.
Ravin.ai
to ensure the world’s most automated vehicle inspector is there to monitor, detect, and assess vehicle conditions properly.
Different camera types are used in different physical conditions to detect damages, reduce inspection costs, and restore trust anywhere vehicles change hands.
Self-insured fleets used car salesmen, and insurers get benefitted by the technology offered by Rivan.ai.
To sum up, Artificial Intelligence is indeed the present and future of global business, which is the reason why more and more AI startups are joining the queue.
The list doesn’t end here; many more AI startups are at their initial stages, which we may talk about in our upcoming articles.
article/are-electric-planes-the-future-of-aviation-industry
Are electric planes the future of the aviation industry? How close are we today?
already running on the roads, people are wondering what next could be done to cut down carbon emissions and lessen down the burden on the environment.
Electric flights, maybe? Aviation is one of the biggest contributors to carbon emissions and people are becoming aware of how conventional flights are posing risk to the environment.
Besides, nitrogen oxides and particulates emitted by aircraft when they reach cruising altitudes which adds to the global warming effect.
Airplane emission is on a rise of about 4.3 % and speculations are that by 2050, it will rise to 25 % of the world’s carbon emissions.
Obviously, shunning travel by planes is not a long-term solution.
Many aviation manufacturing companies are trying their hand on electric flights and assuring people that the dream of electric flights is sure going to be a reality soon.
However, there are many hurdles and we need to understand how far is this true.
Now the point to ponder is: Are electric flights really possible? Let’s shed some light on it.
Electric Planes: Our Future Flight?
Unlike, the flights that use traditional fuel to power leading to huge carbon-emissions, the electric planes use large batteries that are easily chargeable and lead to no carbon emissions.
Electric planes are perfect for trips within a range of 1,000 miles or less on a single charge which definitely is a big hurdle in making electric flights a reality.
It can be powered by three propellers on the wingtips and rear fuselage.
However, by shifting 1,000-mile trips away from fossil fuels, the overall emissions could be cut by 2040 by about 4-8%.
EasyJet, a British low-cost airline, will start using zero-emission electric-powered aircraft by 2027 on routes less than 300 miles and the distance will increase with the advancement in battery technology.
Why go Electric?
Two major components of current airline costs are 27 % fuel and 11 % maintenance.
Making a shift from conventional flights and getting inclined towards electric aviation is the need of the hour.
It could significantly help in reducing the financial and environmental costs of air transport.
Opting for electric and hybrid energy sources is the only way to ensure minimal impact on the environment and cost-effectiveness of air transport.
Aviation Companies that have Tested Electric Planes So Far
Thereafter, it came up with CityAirbus, Vahana, and E-Fan X (shown below).
Airbus aims to make the technology available to fly a 100-passenger aircraft based on electric and hybrid-electric technology by 2030.
Besides these, Harbour Air, magniX, two-seater plane e-Genius, XTI Aircraft, RX1E aircraft are some of the electric planes that are in their testing phase and will soon become a reality.
When will electric planes be a reality?
With many companies and startups working towards making electric flights a reality soon, experts predict that these will be available for commercial use in say around 20 years.
There is a huge potential in the arena and by 2035, the electric planes industry is projected to reach around $22 billion.
Roadblocks to Conquer/Hurdles to Overcome
To make these aircrafts ready for commercial use, the FAA needs to update its guidelines and add the ones to be followed by electric planes.
This might take a few years.
and we asked him about the challenges that Electric planes are facing.
Shedding some light on the topic, he said:
shared some details with us.
Altran is the world leader in Engineering and R&D services that have cross-sector expertise in providing tailor-made solutions.
The energy necessary to make it fly: We need a lot of energy to start an airplane to start and during the flight too.
The flight range: As you are using so much energy to start and land, your range is quite short.
Battery management: Batteries are expensive to produce and need a big surface to be stored.
The bigger the plane, the more battery you need.
But the bigger the plane, you need more energy to make it fly.”
Discussing the issues and solutions with the renowned company professionals, we can conclude that no doubt the problem of batteries and long-distance travel in electric planes persists but zero-emission flights are undoubtedly the future of flying! There is a mammoth of investment being made in fuel cells, renewables, and grid storage to witness the day when electric planes will take to the runway.
With the continuing efforts to resolve the issues and overcome the hurdles, we can believe that thefuturecould be in the sky before any time soon.
interview/portable-battery-powered-solid-state-cooling-device-to-combat-vaccine-refrigeration-problems
Portable Battery Powered Solid State Cooling Device to Combat Vaccine Refrigeration Problems ᾠCTO of BlackFrog Technologies, Ashlesh Bhat
Right temperature control during the storage and transport of vaccines is critical to ensure their potency and safety.Even though more and more development is made in this regard to ensure safe transport and storage facilities, there are still weak points that lead to a reduction in the potency of vaccines.
When a vaccine is damaged by freezing, the potency lost can never be restored and the damage is permanent.
The team assures that the device will provide a platform for delivery of vaccines and all other biological parts like blood, tissue, culture which require to be kept strictly between 2 and 8 degrees Celsius for 8 hours.Besides, it will provide refrigeration and 100 percent accountability in terms of assured temperature maintenance.
Excited to know more about the product, the team, and their future plans, the team CircuitDigest had a detailed conversation withthe co-founder and CTO of the company -Ashlesh Bhat.Ashlesh has done a master's in telecommunication and management from Barcelona Tech and a bachelor's in Electronics and communication from MIT Manipal.
He leads the electronics design efforts at Blackfrog Technologies.
Blackfrog initially started as a product design service company.
We started as an engineering consultancy firm to provide prototyping solutions for academic requirements.
The team has now pivoted to a single product that is a portable bio-medical refrigerator that can be used for the transportation of thermally-sensitive biological samples.
Regarding the name - ‘Blackfrogᾠis the common name for a microhylid frog called ‘Melanobatrachus Indicusᾮ This frog is endemic to the Western Ghats, where we are based out of.
The frog is known for its survival skills and we named the company ‘Blackfrogᾠas a tribute to the endangered species.
for such a device like ours.
After which we received the seed funds through them to take the project further.
Their interest in us has always been in a public health context.
Immunization is one of the most successful and cost-effective health interventions and prevents between two and three million deaths every year.
Immunization protects against diseases such as diphtheria, measles, pertussis (whooping cough), pneumonia, polio, rotavirus diarrhea, rubella, and tetanus.
The benefits of immunization are increasingly being extended from children to adolescents and adults, protecting against life-threatening diseases such as influenza, meningitis, and cancers (cervical and liver cancers).
However, even now, around 22 million infants are not fully immunized with routine vaccines and more than 1.5 million children under five die from diseases that could be prevented by existing vaccines.
The percentage of infants worldwide being fully vaccinated with the diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine is holding steady: An estimated 83% in 2011, compared with 83% in 2009 and 84% in 2010.
While this is commendable, further efforts are needed to ensure that people all over the world are protected from vaccine-preventable diseases.
More than half of all incompletely vaccinated children live in one of three countries: India (32% of incompletely vaccinated children), Nigeria (14%), and Indonesia (7%).
We are a team of 10 members, out of which most of us are engineers.The founding team included Mayur Shetty Chief Executive officer, Donson D Souza, Operations and Ashlesh Bhat, Chief Technical Officer.
We are developing Emvolio, a portable active cooling (battery-powered) device that will provide a platform for delivery of vaccines and all other biological parts like blood, tissue, culture which require to be kept strictly between 2 and 8 degrees Celsius for 8 hours.
The device provides refrigeration as well as 100 percent accountability in terms of assured temperature maintenance; hence seeking to replace standard ice-boxes and other cruder forms like thermos flasks.
We have two types of vendors - One is for critical components of the device and others for the rest.
For critical components, there is a set of standards our vendors need to meet.
Most of our vendors for electronic components and PCB manufacturing are from China.
Mechanical components vendors are usually from both India and China.
There are strict internal IQC protocols set to make sure every lot of goods received is up to the mark.
i.e.
the equivalent of a commercial cellphone power-bank.
The device works on 12V source; so in the event of emergency power-loss, it can be directly plugged onto a motorcycle/car/auto-rickshaw system with an adapter, we provide.
Besides, the device can be charged with an external solar-panel too.
Our first customer was the SELCO foundation that asked for our device around 6 months back.
With their feedback, we have been able to refine our technology a lot.
They have been using this device at Swami Vivekananda Youth Movement (SVYM) hospital in Sargur in the ambulance to treat Jenu-Kuruba tribal groups.
For manufacturing and sales, we will have to scale for 10 on payroll to up 20 in 2021.
9 out of the 15 vaccines commonly administered today are freeze-sensitive.
And they need to be strictly maintained between 2 and 8 degrees Celsius.
However, the cold-boxes (ice/gel-pack based) do not provide assured temperature control.
When we tested iceboxes at an ambient temperature of 25 degrees C, the temperature inside the box was never between 2 and 8 degrees C for a 48 hours test-period (there are various publications to support this and similar results).
We at Blackfrog, assure 100% precise temperature control that can be set at any temperature for the stable cooling platform during transport.
An electronic feedback mechanism is used to ensure the temperature conditions of the containments are never compromised.
We are currently in the process of validating our system against the ice-boxes in the field; so far we have got very promising results.
Ice-boxes are sold all over the world for its simplicity and low-cost.
However, if we take into account the need for refrigerators that are required to freeze the ice-packs to -20 degrees Celsius before they go in the box and the potency loss (and thus an economic burden) associated with this practice, it is well justified to invest in a slightly more expensive technology to replace it.
We are currently working out the precise figures as to what the losses in vaccines translate to in terms of monetary value.
This will provide us with not only a good pricing strategy, but also the overall picture of the market.
Our team is working to put this down to paper.
Besides this, we are in the process of getting a letter-of-interest from Medical universities that require cold-chain management for their research.
We plan to sell our device to them in individual units or as a rental service.
Our sales channel includes retail sales for laboratories and testing facilities, supported by our small batch-production plant, procurement in bulk by WHO (requires WHO PQS certification and complicated purchase filters) and Hyperlocal logistics.
Currently, labs across the country use third party courier services for the transport of thermally sensitive biological substances and they quote extremely high prices for the service.
They use cooled gel-packs, which have the same aforementioned problems (for example, over-freezing).
We are setting up a similar logistics venture to transport samples.
Since our device works on 12V DC, we are now retrofitting it onto the back-seat of a motorcycle and powering it with the engine's alternator.
This is just in the implementation stage currently and we are in talks with a few labs to finalize details.
We have promised to provide the entire data-log with temperature charts for the process to ensure accountability at all times.
Since our device is actively cooled with a feedback mechanism and we are confident with its working, we have promised to provide insurance for the samples we are transporting if they fall out of the 2-8 Degree range.Apart from the small revenue, this will help us with our product testing too.
Moreover, there are beneficiaries that are the organizations (governmental and NGOs) that seek to bring accountability in the vaccines being administered and biological samples that are transported.
Besides easing the economic burden associated with this, our solution helps with the difficult and tedious process of disposing of unviable vaccines, repeated testing (lumbar puncture, blood-drawing) from loss of samples.
case-studies/how-ht-motor-protection-should-be-designed-when-running-in-parallel-with-capacitor-bank
How HT Motor Protection should be designed when running in parallel with Capacitor Bank
, to read about the different problems that we face in the industry and how we solve it.
without any warnings and abnormality reflected.
in just 9 -10 months.
Initially, we never suspected the Protection Schemes, so we started analyzing the data like motor ratings, CT sizing, transformer ratings, relay settings, load patterns, connected loads, etc.
and SLD.
This led us to an instant conclusion that it was the wrong protection scheme for Motors that was causing frequent failures and loss of revenue with significant repairing cost and downtime.
We were now sure that the common CT and Relays for both motors and capacitor banks were the main cause of frequent failure of motors.
Here is the SLD Representation of the existing/old scheme and corrected Protection Scheme for HT motors with the capacitor bank.
for HT motor with capacitor banks.
A protective relay will not sense the fault properly
Suppose 3600 kW, 6.6 kV, 384 Amp FLC (0.82 P.F) Slip ring induction motor is running at full load without capacitor bank, then the motor will be taking 384 Amp normally.
When connected in parallel with a capacitor bank of 1350 KVAR, loading remains the same i.e.
3600 kW but as the power factor is improved to 0.95, net current reduces to 335 - 340 Ampere.
Normally, motor protection relay settings shall be done as per 384 Amp as FLC + permissive overload for a time being.
Whereas in the existing protection scheme, the relay will take 340 Amp only.
To reach the threshold of 384 Amp, the motor has to run at approximately 4250 KW which is in actual 115% of rated capacity.
Now, if the motor keeps running at 115% normally, it will be overheated and shall surely result in the breakdown.
Hard to Detect Faults
Whenever relay trips due to fault, it takes longer time for Engineers to identify the fault/location since common protection for motor and capacitor bank has been used, and hence it increases the downtime as Engineers have to check motors, associated rotor equipment's (if any) in the field and capacitor bank in the substations.
It is also suggested that the motor protection relay settings must be reduced to 88% approximately until the modification in the protection scheme is made.
About the Author
is an Electrical Engineer with over 11 years of rich experience in Electrical Maintenance, Installation, Testing, and Commissioning of all major electrical equipment.
He is specialized in bringing down Energy Cost of a Plant by reducing electricity bills and increasing energy efficiency.
He also reduces plant breakdown costs by implementing proper maintenance activities during routine and shutdown.
Through these Case Studies, he shares his experience and challenges faced in his work routine with the readers of Circuit Digest.
article/impedance-matching-filter-circuit-design-lc-l-and-pi-filters
Impedance Matching Filter Circuit Design ᾠLC, L and PI Filters
at the output of an RF amplifier which can double up as a filtering circuit and also as an impedance matching circuit.
There are many types of filter circuits that can be used in for Impedance matching, the most common ones are discussed in this article.
LC Filter Matching
, they let the wanted signal through while getting rid of harmonics.
When designing LC filters, we will talk about source resistance and load resistance instead of impedance, because if the load or source has some series or parallel inductance or capacitance, and therefore non-resistive impedance the calculations get much more complex.
In this case, it is best to use a PI filter or L filter calculator.
In most cases, such as integrated circuits, properly made and tuned antennas, TV and radio receivers, transmitters, etc.
output/input impedance = resistance.
, in the low pass and high pass filters it determines the steepness of the frequency response.
A low Q filter will be very broadband and will not filter out undesired frequencies as good as a high Q filter.
A high Q filter will filter out undesired frequencies, but it will have a resonant peak, so it will also act as a bandpass filter.
A High Q factor sometimes reduces efficiency.
L filters
L filters are the simplest form of LC filters.
They consist of a capacitor and an inductor, connected in a way similar to that found in RC filters, with the inductor replacing the resistor.
They can be used to match impedance that is higher or lower than the source impedance.
In every L filter, there is only one combination of L and C that can match a given input impedance to given output impedance.
For example, to match a 50 Ω load to a 100 Ω load at 14MHz, we need a 560nH inductor with a 114pF capacitor ᾠthis is the only combination that can do matching at this frequency with these resistances.
Their Q factor, and therefore how good the filter is equal to
↨(RA/RB)-1)=Q
is the bigger impedance, RL is the smaller impedance, and Q is the Q factor with the appropriate load connected.
In our case, the loaded Q will be equal to ↨(100/50)-1) = ↨2-1) = ↱ = 1.
If we wanted more or less filtering (different Q), we would need the PI filter, where Q is fully adjustable and you can have different L and C combinations that can give you the required matching at a given frequency, each with a different Q.
we need three things: output resistance of the source, resistance of the load, and the frequency of operation.
For example, the output resistance of the source will be 3000 Ω, load resistance will be 50 Ω, and the frequency is 14 MHz.
Since our source resistance is larger than the load resistance, we will use the “bᾠfilter
First, we need to calculate the reactance’s of the two components of an L filter, then we can calculate the inductance and capacitance based on reactance and frequency of use:
XL=√(RS*(RL-RS))
XL=√(50 Ω*(3000 Ω-50 Ω)
XL=√(50 Ω*(3000 Ω-50 Ω)
XL=√(50 Ω*2950 Ω)
XL=√(50 Ω*2950 Ω)
XL=√147500 Ω2
XL=384.1 Ω
We use a reactance calculator to determine an inductance that has a 384.1 Ω reactance at 14MHz
L=4.37 μH
XC=(RS*RL)/XL
XC=(50 Ω*3000 Ω)/384.1 Ω
XC=150000 Ω2/384.1 Ω
XC=390.6 Ω
We use a reactance calculator to determine an inductance that has a 390.6 Ω reactance at14MHz
C= 29.1 pF
As you can see, the filter’s frequency response is a low pass with a resonant peak at 14MHz, the resonant peak is caused by the filter having a high Q if the Q was lower, the filter would be lowpass without a peak.
If we wanted a different Q, so the filter would be more broadband, we would need to use a PI filter because the L filter’s Q depends on source resistance and load resistance.
If we use this circuit to match the output impedance of a tube or a transistor, we would need to subtract the output to ground capacitance from the filter’s capacitor because they are in parallel.
If we use a transistor with a collector-emitter capacitance (aka output capacitance) of 10pF, the capacitance of C should be 19.1 pF instead of 29.1 pF.
PI Filters
is a very versatile matching circuit, it consists of 3 reactive elements, usually two capacitors and one inductor.
Unlike the L filter, where only one combination of L and C gave the required impedance matching at a given frequency the PI filter allows for multiple combinations of C1, C2, and L to achieve the desired impedance matching, each combination having a different Q.
) is determined by the ratio of capacitors squared, so when tuning to a different impedance the coil can stay the same, while only capacitors are tuned.
C1 and C2 in RF power amplifiers are often variable.
(C1/C2)2=ri
, but below 10, as the higher the filter’s Q the lower the efficiency.
Typical Q of PI filters in RF output stages is 7, but this value can vary.
Qcrit=↨RA/RB-1)
at higher Q can be regarded, ignoring impedance matching as a parallel resonant circuit made from a coil L and a capacitor C with a capacitance equal to:
C=(C1*C2)/(C1+C2)
should resonate at the frequency the filter will be used.
To calculate the values of a PI filter components we need four things: output resistance of the source, resistance of the load, the frequency of operation, and Q.
For example, we need to match an 8Ω source to a 75Ω load with a Q of 7.
is the smaller resistance.
XC1=RA/Q
XC1=75 Ω/7
XC1=10.7 Ω
We use a reactance calculator to determine a capacitance that has a 10.7 Ω reactance at 7 MHz
C1=2.12 nF
XL=(Q*RA+(RA*RB/XC2))/(Q2+1)
XL=(7*75 Ω+(75 Ω*8 Ω/3.59 Ω))/72+1
XL=(575 Ω+(600 Ω2/3.59 Ω))/50
XL=(575 Ω+(167 Ω))/50
XL=742 Ω/50
XL=14.84 Ω
We use a reactance calculator to determine an inductance that has a 14.84 Ω reactance at 7 MHz
L=340 nH
XC2=RB*√((RA/RB)/(Q2+1-(RA/RB)))
XC2=8 Ω*√((75 Ω/8 Ω)/(Q2+1-(75 Ω/8 Ω)))
XC2=8 Ω*√(9.38/(49+1-3.38))
XC2=8 Ω*√(9.38/46.62)
XC2=8 Ω*√0.2
XC2=8 Ω*0.45
XC2=3.59 Ω
We use a reactance calculator to determine a capacitance that has a 3.59 Ω reactance at 7 MHz
C2=6.3nF
Like with the L filter, if our output device has any output capacitance (plate-cathode for tubes, collector to emitter for BJT, often just output capacitance for MOSFETs, tubes, and BJTs) we need to subtract it from C1 because that capacitance is connected in parallel to it.
If we used an IRF510 transistor, with a 180 pF output capacitance, as a power output device C1 would need to be 6.3 nF-0.18 nF, so 6.17 nF.
If we used multiple transistors in parallel to get a higher output power the capacitances would sum.
For 3 IRF510 it would be 6.3 nF-0.18 nF*3 = 6.3 nF-0.54 nF, so 5.76 nF instead of 6.3 nF.
Other LC circuits Used for Impedance matching
, special matching circuits for transistor power amplifiers, or PI-L filters (PI filter with an additional inductor).
article/what-is-augmented-reality-its-use-cases-and-hardware-software-involved-in-ar
What is Augmented Reality - It's Use Cases and Hardware & Software Involved in It
In the last few years, there is rapid growth in Augmented Reality and Virtual reality.
These technologies are helping the world to understand complex things by making the visualization easier and effective.
They make it easy to visualize the object in 3 dimensions which not only creates a virtual image of imaginary objects but also builds 3D images of real objects.
The first experiment of virtual reality in humankind is done by Sutherland in 1968.
He made a huge mechanically mounted head display which was very heavy and it named as “Sword of Damoclesᾮ The sketch for the same is given below.
The term “Augmented Realityᾠwas coined by two Boeing researchers in 1992.
They want to analyze aircraft’s parts without disassembling them.
Let’s dive into the world of AR and VR by understanding these technologies and differences between them.
What is Augmented Reality and how its different from Virtual reality?
Word “Augmentᾠmeans to make things large by adding other things.
AR brings computing into the real world, letting you interact with digital objects and information in your environment.
, a simulated environment is created in which the user is placed inside the experience.
So, VR transports you to a new experience and therefore you don’t need to get there to see a place, you feel what it’s like to be there.
Oculus Rift or Google Cardboard are some examples of VR.
is the combination of both AR and VR in which you can create a virtual environment and augment other objects into it.
You can see the difference between these technologies just by observing the above image and definitions.
, you can just use a phone camera and hold it towards specified objects to experience headset free AR at any time.
Hololens is a high-performance smart glass that has different types of sensors and cameras embedded into it.
It is specially designed for experiencing AR.
Use cases of Augmented Reality
Though AR is a young medium and it is already being used in a variety of different sectors.
In this section, we'll look at a few of the most popular use cases of AR.
This sector using AR technology very extensively.
AR let you try to watch, clothes, makeup, spectacles, etc.
Lenskart, an online platform for buying spectacles uses AR to give you a feel of the real look.
Furniture is also the best use case of AR.
You can point the camera on any part of your house/office for which you want to buy furniture, it will show the best possible view in 3-D with exact dimensions.
Professional organizations also using AR which enables the interaction with the products and services.
Retailers can give customers novel ways to engage with products, and advertisers can reach consumers with immersive campaigns.
Warehouses can build helpful navigations and instructions for workers.
Architecture firms can display designs in 3D space.
Many social media platforms like Snapchat, Facebook are using AR to put different types of filters.
AR manipulates your faces digitally and makes your photos more interesting and funny.
becomes the first viral AR game.
It was so interesting and real that People got addicted to this game.
Now, many gaming firms using AR to make the characters more engaging and interactive with the user.
Teaching complex topics with the help of AR is one of its capabilities.
Google launched an AR application for education named Expeditions AR, which is designed to help teachers show students with the help of AR visuals.
An AR visual give below which shows how volcano eruption takes place.
AR is used in hospitals to help doctors and nurses in planning and executing surgeries.
Interactive 3-D visuals like in AR offers much more for these doctors in comparison to 2-D.
Therefore, AR can guide surgeons through complex operations one step at a time and it could replace traditional charts in the future.
AR can be used by Nonprofit organizations to encourage deeper engagement around critical issues and help build brand identity.
For example, an organization wants to spread awareness about global warming, then they can give a presentation about its impacts using AR interactive objects to educate people.
Hardware Requirements for Augmented Reality
The base for any technology starts with its hardware.
As described above that we can experience AR on the smartphone or standalone smart glasses.
These devices contain many different sensors through which the user’s surrounding environment can be tracked.
, etc.
play a very important role in AR.
Let’s see the importance and roles of these sensors in AR.
Motion Tracking Sensors in Augmented Reality
Accelerometer: This sensor measure Acceleration which can be static like Gravity or it can be Dynamic like Vibrations.
In other words, it measures the change in speed per unit time.
This sensor helps the AR device in tracking the change in motion.
Gyroscope: Gyroscope measures the angular velocity or orientation/inclination of the device.
So when you tilt your AR device, then it measures the amount of inclination and feeds it to the ARCore to make the AR objects respond accordingly.
Camera: It gives the live feed of the user’s surrounding environment on which AR objects can be overlaid.
Apart from the camera itself, the ARcore uses other technologies like Machine learning, complex image processing to produce high-quality images and mapping with the AR.
Let’s understand motion tracking in detail.
Motion Tracking in Augmented Reality
AR platforms should sense the movement of the user.
For this, these platforms use Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) and Concurrent Odometry and Mapping (COM) technologies.
SLAM is the process by which robots and smartphones understand and analyze the surrounding world and act accordingly.
This process uses depth sensors, cameras, accelerometers, gyroscope and light sensors.
(COM) might sound complex but basically, this technology help smartphones in locating itself in space with relation to the world around it.
It captures visually distinct objects features in the environment called the feature points.
These feature points can be a light switch, edge of the table, etc.
Any high-contrast visual is conserved as a feature point.
Location Tracking Sensors in AR
Magnetometer: This sensor is used to measure the earth's magnetic field.
It gives the AR device a simple orientation related to the Earth's magnetic field.
This sensor helps the smartphone to find a particular direction, which allows it to auto-rotate digital maps depending on your physical orientation.
This device is the key to location-based AR apps.
The most commonly used magnet sensor is a Hall sensor, using which we have previously built a virtual reality environment using Arduino.
GPS:It is a global navigation satellite system that provides geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver, like in a smartphone.
For ARCore-capable smartphones, this device helps enable location-based AR apps.
What makes AR feel real?
There are many tools and techniques which are used to make the AR feel real and interactive.
Assets are the AR objects which are visible to eyes.
To maintain the illusion of reality in AR, digital objects need to behave in the same way as the real ones.
These objects need to be stick to a fixed point in a given environment.
Fixed point can be something concrete like the floor, table, wall, etc.
or it can be in the mid-air.
It means during the motion, assets should not be jumped randomly, it should be fixed at predefined points.
AR objects need to be able to scale.
For example, if you see a car coming towards you, it starts from small and gets bigger as it approaches.
Also, if you see a painting from the side, it looks different when it is seen from the front.
So, AR objects also behave like same way and give feel like real objects.
What happens when an image or object is blocked by another- is referred to as Occlusion.
So, when you move your hand in front of your eyes, you will be concerned if you see anything while your eyes are blocked by a hand.
Also, AR objects should follow the same rule, when an AR object is hiding other AR object, then only the AR object which is in front should be visible by occluding the other one.
When there is a change in the lighting of the surrounding, then the AR object needs to respond to this change.
For example, if the door is opened or closed, the AR object should change the color, shadow, and appearance.
Also, the shadow should move accordingly to make the AR feel real.
Tools to create Augmented Reality
, they are providing good support to a beginner to make AR.
Other than that, few other AR software are briefly explained below:
is an online library by Google where people can browse, share, and remix 3D assets.
An asset is a 3D model or scene created usingTilt Brush,Blocks, or any 3D program that produces a file that can be uploaded to Poly.
Many assets are licensed under theCC BYlicense, which means developers can use them in their apps, free of charge, as long as the creator is given credit.
lets you paint in 3D space with virtual reality.
Unleash your creativity with three-dimensional brush strokes, stars, light, and even fire.
Your room is your canvas.
Your palette is your imagination.
The possibilities are endless.
help in creating 3D objects in virtual reality, no matter your modeling experience.
Using six simple tools, you can bring your applications to life.
is a cross-platform game engine developed by Unity Technologies, which is primarily used to develop both three-dimensional and two-dimensional video games and simulations for computers, consoles, and mobile devices.
Unity has become a popular game engine for creating VR and AR content.
is a 3D framework, with a physically-based renderer, that's optimized for mobile, and that makes it easy for Java developers to build augmented reality.
Important terms used in AR and VR
Anchors: It is a user-defined point of interest upon which AR objects are placed.
Anchors are created and updated relative to geometry (planes, points, etc.)
Asset: It refers to a 3D model.
Design Document: A guide for your AR experience that contains all of the 3D assets, sounds, and other design ideas for your team to implement.
Environmental understanding: Understanding the real-world environment by detecting feature points and planes and using them as reference points to map the environment.
Also referred to as context-awareness.
Feature Points: These are visually distinct features in your environment, like the edge of a chair, a light switch on a wall, the corner of a rug, or anything else that is likely to stay visible and consistently placed in your environment.
Hit-testing: It is used to take an (x,y) coordinates corresponding to the phone's screen (provided by a tap or whatever other interaction you want your app to support) and project a ray into the camera's view of the world.
This allows users to select or otherwise interact with objects in the environment.
Immersion: The sense that digital objects belong in the real world.
Breaking immersion means that the sense of realism has been broken; in AR, this is usually by an object behaving in a way that does not match our expectations.
Inside-Out Tracking: When the device has internal cameras and sensors to detect motion and track positioning.
Outside-In Tracking: When the device uses external cameras or sensors to detect motion and track positioning.
Plane Finding: The smartphone-specific process by which ARCore determines where horizontal and vertical surfaces are in your environment and use those surfaces to place and orient digital objects
Raycasting: Projecting a ray to help estimate where the AR object should be placed in order to appear in the real-world surface in a believable way; used during hit testing.
User Experience (UX): The process and underlying framework of enhancing user flow to create products with high usability and accessibility for end-users.
User Interface (UI): The visuals of your app and everything that a user interacts with.
tutorial/introduction-to-impedance-matching-transformer-and-how-to-use-an-impedance-matching-transformer-for-your-design
Introduction to Impedance Matching and How to use an Impedance Matching Transformer for your Design
ᾠshould have struck you more than once.
The term is crucial because it directly affects the transmission power and thus the range of our Radio modules.
This article aims to help you understand what Impedance Matching is from basics and will also help you to design your own impedance matching circuits by using an Impedance Matching Transformer which is the most common method.
So, let's dive in.
What is the Impedance Matching?
because if the output impedance is bigger than the load more power is lost in the source (the first light bulb shines brighter).
Standing Wave Ratio ᾠMeasure of Impedance Matching
It is the ratio of the larger impedance compared to the smaller one, a 50 Ω transmitter into a 200 Ω antenna gives 4 SWR, a 75 Ω antenna feeding a NE612 mixer (input impedance is 1500 Ω) directly will an SWR of 20.
A perfect match, let’s say a 50 Ω antenna and a 50 Ω receiver gives an SWR of 1.
of the power output stage devices (vacuum tubes or transistors).
In receiving applications, high SWR won’t cause damage but it will make the receiver less sensitive because the received signal will be attenuated due to mismatch and consequent power loss.
are used.
A typical SWR loss table is shown below
Using the SWR table above, we can calculate the power loss and also voltage loss.
Voltage is lost due to mismatch when the load impedance is lower than source impedance and current is lost when the load impedance is higher than the source.
Our 50 Ω transmitter with a 200 Ω antenna with 4 SWR will lose about 36% of its power, meaning that 36% less power will be delivered to the antenna compared to if the antenna had a 50 Ω impedance.
The lost power will be mostly dissipated in the source, meaning if our transmitter was giving out 100W, 36W will be additionally dissipated in it as heat.
If our 50 Ω transmitter was 60% efficient, it would dissipate 66 W when transmitting 100 W into a 50 Ω antenna.
When connected to the 200 Ω antenna, it will dissipate an additional 36 W so the total power lost as heat in the transmitter is 102 W.
The increase of power dissipated in the transmitter not only means that full power is not being emitted by the antenna but also risk damage to our transmitter because it dissipates 102 W instead of 66W, it was designed to work with.
In the case of a 75Ω antenna, feeding the 1500Ω input of the NE612 IC, we are not concerned by power being lost as heat, but about the increased signal level that can be achieved by the use of impedance matching.
Let’s say that 13nW of RF is induced in the antenna.
With a 75 Ω impedance, 13nW gives 1 mV - we want to match that to our 1500 Ω load.
To calculate the output voltage after the matching circuit, we need to know the ratio of impedance, in our case, 1500 Ω/75 Ω=20.
The voltage ratio (like turns ratio in transformers) is equal to the square root of the impedance ratio, so ↲0⇸.7.
This means that the output voltage will be 8.7 times bigger, so it will be equal to 8.7 mV.
The matching circuits act like transformers.
Since the power entering the matching circuit and the power leaving is the same (minus loss), the output current will be lower than the input one by a factor of 8.7, but the output voltage will be bigger.
If we matched a high impedance to a low one we would get lower voltage but a higher current.
Impedance Matching Transformers
using sheet steel cores, such as those used in vacuum tube amplifier circuits to match the high impedance of the tube to the low impedance of the speaker, have a bandwidth of 20Hz to 20kHz, RF transformers made using ferrite or even air cores can have bandwidths of 1MHz-30MHz.
:
(nA/nB)2=ri
is the impedance ratio.
This is how impedance matching happens.
don’t give more power than they are fed.
No free energy here.
How to select an Impedance Matching Transformer
Transformer matching circuit can be used when bandpass filtering is needed, is should be resonant with the inductance of secondary at the frequency of use.
The main parameters of transformers as impedance matching devices are:
Impedance ratio or more commonly stated turns ratio (n)
Primary inductance
Secondary inductance
Primary impedance
Secondary impedance
Self-resonant frequency
Minimum frequency of operation
Maximum frequency of operation
Winding configuration
Presence of air gap and max.
DC current
Max.
power
The primary turns number should be enough, so the primary winding of the transformer has reactance (it is a coil) four times the output impedance of the source at the lowest frequency of operation.
The secondary turns number is equal to the number of turns on the primary, divided by the square root of the impedance ratio.
We also need to know what core type and size to use, different cores work good in different frequencies, outside of which they exhibit loss.
Core size depends on the power flowing through the core, as each core exhibits losses and bigger cores can dissipate these losses better and not exhibit magnetic saturation and other unwanted things as easily.
An air gap is required when a DC current will flow through any winding on the transformer if the core used is made from steel laminations, like in a mains transformer.
Transformer Matching Circuits - Example
For example, we need a transformer to match a 50 Ω source to a 1500 Ω load in the frequency range of 3MHz to 30MHz in a receiver.
We first need to know what core we would need since it is a receiver very little power will flow through the transformer, so core size can be small.
A good core in this application would be the FT50-75.
According to the manufacturer, it’s frequency range as a wideband transformer is 1MHz to 50MHz, good enough for this application.
rule (maximum of 3A flowing per each square millimeter of wire cross-section area).
The higher the impedance loading the circuit, the lower the bandwidth and the higher Q.
If we connected a resonant circuit directly to a low impedance the bandwidth would be very often too large to be useful.
The resonant circuit consists of the secondary of L1 and the first 220 pF capacitor and the primary of L2 and the second 220 pF capacitor.
audio power amplifier to match the 3000 Ω output impedance of the PL841 tube to a 4 Ω speaker.
1000 pF C67 prevents ringing at higher audio frequencies.
Autotransformer matching for Impedance balance
, together with transformer matching to the base, where it is used to match the lower impedance of the transistor to a high impedance that loads the tuning circuit less and allows for smaller bandwidth and therefore greater selectivity.
The process for designing them is practically the same, with the number of turns on the primary being equal to the number of turns from the tap of the coil to the “coldᾠor grounded end and the number of turns on the secondary being equal to the number of turns between the tap and the “hotᾠend or the end that is connected to the load.
The above image shows an Autotransformer matching circuit.
C is optional if used it should be resonant with the inductance of L at the frequency of use.
This way the circuit also provides filtering.
This image illustrates an Autotransformer and transformer matching used in an IF transformer.
Autotransformer’s high impedance connects to C17, this capacitor forms a resonant circuit with the whole winding.
Since this capacitor connects to the high impedance end of the autotransformer, the resistance loading the tuned circuit is higher, therefore circuit Q is larger and IF bandwidth is reduced, improving selectivity and sensitivity.
Transformer matching couples the amplified signal to the diode.
Autotransformer matching used in a transistor power amplifier, it matches the 12 Ω output impedance of transistor to the 75 Ω antenna.
C55 is connected in parallel to the high impedance end of the autotransformer forms a resonant circuit that filters out harmonics.
article/pcb-layout-design-tips-for-smps-circuits
PCB Layout Design Guidelines for Switch Mode Power Supply Circuits
using the Power Integration and Viper controller IC respectively.
the PCB design tactics are far more essential and it is sometimes overlooked by the designer.
For example, a poor PCB design could lead to failure of the entire circuit as well as well-designed PCB could solve many unpleasant events.
in SMPS Circuits.
First thing first, for designing a switch-mode power supply, one needs to have a clear indication of the circuitry requirement and specifications.
The power supply has four important portions.
Input and output filters.
Driver circuitry and associated components for the driver especially control circuit.
Switching inductors or Transformers
Output Bridge and the associated filters.
In a PCB design, these all segments need to be separated in PCB and require special attention.
We will discuss each segment in detail in this article.
Guidelines for Input and Associated filters
need to be situated in an evenly spaced distance from the input connector and the driver circuit.
It is essential to always use a short length of connection for connecting the Input section with the driver circuit.
Guidelines for Driver Circuitry and Control Circuit
This portion always needs to be separate from all other connections.
For example, the high voltage DC line that is directly going to the transformer (For flyback SMPS) or the DC line that directly goes to the power inductor (Buck or Boost topology-based switching regulators) should be separated.
In the below image, the highlighted signal is the high voltage DC line.
The signal is routed in such a way that it is separated from other signals.
by using milling or dimension layers.
In the below image, an isolated Drain pin connection is shown that has a safe distance from the Opto-coupler as well as the PCB cut out will remove any interference from other routings or signals.
These types of lines always need to be separated from the Power, switching or any other noisy lines.
The below image is showing a separate Feedback line from optocoupler to the driver.
Guidelines for Switching Inductors and Transformers
is by applying a PCB cutoff using a milling layer.
Never use any kind of routing between the transformer leads.
Guidelines for Output Bridge and Filter Section
are required that need to be created in the PCB itself by using the copper plane.
The heat sink efficiency is proportional to the PCB copper area and thickness.
and PCB heat sink area get shortened.
If the PCB is a double layer and the heated space is somewhat not available in a PCB, one can use both sides of the copper plane and could connect those two sides using common vias.
The below image is an example of PCB heatsink of a Schottky diode that is created in the bottom layer.
In such a way, the output ripple can be reduced.
The above image is an example of a short loop from the transformer output to the bridge diode and filter capacitor.
Reducing Ground bounce for SMPS PCB Layouts
in a power supply circuit is another most important thing.
of the PCB in a single layer PCB.
These two portions need to be separated and should be connected in a particular region.
and all noisy components should use this ground plane.
But those two grounds are the same connection and connected in the schematic.
Now, for connecting the top and bottom layers, vias can be used for connecting both ground planes in a single place.
For example, see the below image ᾍ
The above portion of the driver has all power filter related capacitors that are using a ground plane separately called Power GND, but the below portion of the driver IC is all control related components, using a separate control GND.
Both grounds are the same connection but separately created.
Both GND connection then joined across the Driver IC.
Follow the IPC Standards
carrying capacity.
Therefore, the wrong width of the traces could lead to a temperature increase and poor current flow.
is also important to avoid uncertain failure or cross-talk, sometimes crossfires in high current high voltage application.
IPC-9592B describes the recommended spacing between the power lines in Power Supply based PCB design.
Kelvin Connection for Sense Line
Kelvin connection is another important parameter in the Power Supply Board Design, because of the accuracy of the measurement which affects the ability of the control circuit.
A power supply control circuit always requires some kind of measurements, be it current sensing or voltage sensing in the feedback or sense line.
This sensing should be done from the component leads in such a way that other signals or traces do not interfere with the sense line.
Kelvin connection helps in achieving the same, if the sense line is a differential pair, the length needs to be the same for both the traces and the trace should connect across the component leads.
by Texas instruments.
The above image is showing proper current sensing using a Kelvin connection.
The right connection is the proper kelvin connection that will be essential for sense line design.
The PCB layout is also given properly in that document.
The PCB layout shows a close connection between the 10nF and 1nF ceramic capacitor across the driver or controller IC.
The Sense line is also reflecting the proper kelvin connection.
The Inner power layer is a separated source line that is connected with the same but separated source lines using multiple vias for reducing noise coupling.
interview/dr-nishanth-raja-ceo-of-xyma-analytics-explains-how-they-built-iiot-based-ultrasonic-waveguide-sensor-for-harsh-industry-environments
IIoT Based Ultrasonic Waveguide Sensors for Harsh Industry Environments
like temperature sensors, proximity sensors, water quality sensors, etc.
as per their requirement.
Founded in 2019, XYMA Analytics offers a complete Industrial IoT based analyticsplatform to provide smart process monitoring.
to enhance operational efficiency and offer more than just measurements.
Curious to know more about the company, team, work style, problem solutions, and future plans, we asked Dr.
Nishanth Raja a few questions.
Read on to know what he has to say!
Dr.
Nishanth Raja is the Chief Executive Officer of XYMA Analytics - an IIT Madras incubated company and a spin-out from Centre for Non-destructive evaluation.
He was a Senior Research Fellow in Fluid Control Research Institute, Palakkad in Kerala and later joined as the project officer in Centre for Non-Destructive Evaluation (CNDE) - IIT Madras and received his Ph.D.
from Anna University.
He has also worked on several industry-related projects in the area of Ultrasonic Waveguide based temperature and flow measurements and has rich industrial experience.
to enhance their process efficiency and improve their product life.
XYMA Analytics addresses issues with conventional process sensors with its novel ultrasonic waveguide-based sensor technology that helps the industries to continuously monitor their process parameters with Industrial IoT with a vision to democratize its sensor-based process efficiency for industries and also provide plant-wide distributed and concurrent sensing solutions for data-driven decision making.
This is difficult using conventional sensing solutions.
This sensor is currently in field trials in several industrial applications including mould cooling jacket temperature monitoring during the steel manufacturing process as well as for furnace wall temperature measurements in the petrochemical process, glass manufacturing industries.
The ultrasonic waveguide sensor can be of different cross-sections such as wire, rod, strip selectable based on the access for the waveguide, different materials either metals or ceramics and is configurable for different measurements applications including adjustment of special distribution of the sensors.
of the reected ultrasonic signal from appropriately spaced reectors (bends, notches, and so on) the localized information on the surrounding medium is extracted (for example, temperature).
due to the variations in its material properties (α, E, G, and ρ) arising from the changes in the surrounding medium such as temperature, humidity, etc.
The change in time of flight, change in velocity, phase shift of the ultrasonic waves as compared at room temperature signals, help to measure the changes in temperature and other properties (rheology) in the surrounding media.
Many industrial processes operate at very high temperatures.
For example, refining crude oil and generating electricity require temperature levels that exceed several hundred degrees Celsius.
Conventional sensors such as thermocouples, RTD and level sensors have accuracy issues due to sensor drift during their long-term operation.
and can be designed for different configurations such as helical, spiral, multiple bents, etc.
The use of multiple sensors in the same waveguide for distributed sensing over a wide range of temperature (30°C -1400°C ) and multiple parameter measurement (e.g: Level, Temperature, and Rheology) of using a single waveguide sensor provide an advantage to our Ultrasonic Waveguide sensors when compared to conventional sensors.
The waveguides guide the ultrasonic wave from the sensor electronics to the measurement region of interest, while holding the sensor electronics (transducer) safely away from the hostile and remote inaccessible environments as shown below.
is difficult using conventional thermocouples due to their ability to measure a single point measurement withstand hostile environment size constraint.
The Guided Wave based waveguide sensor provides a reliable, stable, and cost-effective solution for interface /accurate process measurements.
(Sensitive to out of plane displacement) can be used for level measurement.
By tracking the change in attenuation and phase shift and frequency shift of these wave modes (Longitudinal, Flexural and Torsional), we can monitor the surrounding medium properties.
This patented technology is tested in an industrial environment to simultaneously measure temperature and viscosity of resins at high temperatures using a single waveguide sensor.
These waveguides can be custom designed for a specific application in industry and can also be designed in different cross-sections.
focus on boostingthe productivity of industries by increasing process efficiency and reducing opportunities for manual error and enhance product life.
XYMA sensors are customized and designed in-house for a wide range of temperatures.
We develop a waveguide sensor based on their temperature range and the environment where the sensing is required.
Also, the selection of waveguide material, size, length, and the number of sensors designed mainly depends on the customer prerequisites and application environment.
We have a state of the art manufacturing facility and soon, we are planning to expand our current R&D/calibration facilities to meet all client testing requirements.
We always maintain QHSE (Quality, Health, Safety, and Environment) values at the maximum during manufacturing, installation, and after-sales service with the help of completely dedicated young engineers.
In each stage of our supply chain process, we have well defined KPI’s (Key Performance Indicators) to ensure the process which matches our core values.
Since technology is evolved from the XYMA Team, we developed our master data for all entities to ensure the reliability of our products.
We always ensure to meet all the client's quality requirements also.
All our suppliers undergo a technical evaluation process to ensure the reliability and quality of the supplied items.
For product improvement, we have a customer feedback system also.
have been used to enhance the connectivity in the present condition or as an integrated part of proprietary solutions for various industrial applications.
(e) Polymer industries for cure monitoring including aerospace, composite, etc.
remains a challenge.
We have embedded our waveguide sensors during the manufacturing of the composites and monitored continuously until the curing is completed.
Using the temperature and curing data provided by our sensor, the manufacturers can enhance the product life and process efficiency to 50- 70%.
during its process.
Distributed temperature measurement is difficult using conventional thermocouples due to their ability to measure a single point measurement withstand hostile environment size constraint.
Our waveguide sensor can do measurements by maintaining the sensor region in a hostile environment and operating it from a remote location and also waveguide sensors can make distributed temperature measurements in multiple locations.
The geometry constraint (1.5 mm slot) to insert multiple thermocouples is also addressed by using a single waveguide (1mm) with multiple sensors.
to make XYMA different from the existing players in the market in terms of technology and solutions provided.
The key advantage of waveguide sensors are robust and have a smaller footprint, capable of multi-point and multi-parameter sensing over a wide temperature range.
In industries, IoT is used to maximize efficiency to upgrade health and safety conditions, reduce downtime, and also provide a customized product.
The major hurdle regarding IoT is the lesser awareness among industries in India about its usage and intelligence that can help in improving operational efficiencies for industries at large by helping them enhance monitoring and increase safety and accuracy.
The main challenge in Indian industries is data storage and ownership issues, conflict in standards followed by each industry, data security issues, lack of skilled people in the plant and restriction to the internet inside the plant, access and integration of IoT to their dashboard, etc.
is not an easy job for any startup.
The product should be robust, certified and reliable with high accuracy.
These are some of the major challenges in the Indian industry.
XYMA has a strong talented team of young engineers with both industrial and research experience from eminent institutions like IITs, NITs, CSIR labs, and MNCs, etc.
This group of young scientists helps XYMA develop its indigenous products which are competitive and robust enough to compete with large industry players.
Moreover, my co-founders Prof.
Krishnan Balasubramanian and Prof.
Prabhu Rajagopal are pioneers in the field of Ultrasonics and NDE.
They have guided, motivated, and mentored me in making XYMA a reality and using XIoT for addressing industrial problems.
Prof.
Krishnan Balasubramanian is currently the Head of the Centre for Non-Destructive Evaluation (CNDE) and a Chair Professor with the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras.
He has been involved in the eld of non-destructive evaluation for more than 30 years with applications in the elds of maintenance, quality assurance, manufacturing, and design.
He has more than 300 technical publications.
His areas of interest include non-destructive evaluation, intelligent manufacturing, and in-process monitoring, structural health monitoring, and applied data analysis.
Prof.
Prabhu Rajagopal has been involved in the eld of non-destructive evaluation for close to 20 years.
He has expertise in high-temperature transducers and feature-guided ultrasonics.
His areas of interest include feature-guided waves (FGWs), meta-material lenses, the waveguide-based sensor for condition/cure monitoring and NDE using robotics.
IIT madras incubation cell ecosystem supported us in such a way that we could start right out of the lab.
We use best-in-class facilities to build and test your products.
IIT-M helped XYMA to take the product to the industry, which takes you a mile ahead.
for process optimization.
This helps to perform intelligent asset monitoring to perform risk evaluation and estimated life prediction for improving safety and efficiency is at the core industries.
XYMA is focused to deploy our high end patented solutions to global Oil and Gas Markets, manufacturing industries and take indigenous core technology built in India to the rest of the world.
article/ultrasonic-flow-meter-working-principle-in-water-flow-measurement
Understanding Ultrasonic Flow Meters and it’s Working Principle in Water Flow Measurement
for bill estimation to more critical industrial applications (e.g large scale mixing of multiple chemicals) where the flow rate measurement plays a key role in maintaining the quality of the process/product.
and calculated rate of flow and volume dispersed.
provide a non-invasive, very reliable means of determining the amount of fluid flowing through a vessel and they have found applications across different industries from oil and gas to Utility providers.
For this article, we will be looking at everything around the Ultrasonic Flow Meter, how they work, advantages, and disadvantages.
The Ultrasonic Flow Meter
if they operate using the doppler principle.
The Ultrasonic flow meters are most ideal for water applications where low-pressure drop, low maintenance, and chemical compatibility are required.
They will generally not work with drinking or distilled water but are fit for wastewater applications or conductive dirty liquids.
They are used with abrasive and corrosive liquids as they do not obstruct liquid flowing through the pipelines.
Working principle of the Ultrasonic Flow Meter
, is then estimated and used in determining flow rate and other parameters.
For the second configuration, with the transmitter and receiver placed side by side, the transmitter emits the sound pulse while the receiver monitors the time it takes to receive an echo of the transmission.
of the medium and this principle is used to accurately measure the volume of gases and liquids and also to derive density and viscosity.
The actual hardware set-up of the same is also shown with both the transducers marked.
Calculating Flow Rate using Ultrasonic Flow Sensors
To get a clearer understanding of the technicalities behind this, consider the image below which features the first configuration with the transmitter (TA) and receiver (TB) transducers mounted at an angle opposite one another;
of the medium i.e.;
TB –A ᾠTA –B = vm ------------- Equation 1
Since the transit time of the signal is the distance between the transmitting transducer and the receiving transmitter divided by the velocity which the acoustic signal needs to travel from one transducer to the other we have
TA –B = L / (CAB + v*cosα) -------------- Equation 2
And;
TB –A = L / (CBA ᾠv*cos α) --------------- Equation 3
Equations 2 and 3 define the flow rate between transducer A upstream and transducer B downstream.
where;
v = flow velocity of the medium, L = length of the acoustic path, c = velocity of sound in the medium, and alpha “αᾠis the angle to the pipe at which the ultrasonic sound travels from the transmitter to the receiver.
Assuming the velocity of sound in the medium is constant (i.e.
no change in parameters like the density of fluid, temperature, etc.) we have;
(L / (2 * cos)) * (TB–A ᾠTA–B) / (TB–A x TA–B)
multiplying the average velocity with the cross-sectional area of the pipe, we get the flow rate, Q as;
Q = (π * D3) / (4 * sin 2α) * (TB–A ᾠTA–B) / (TB–A x TA–B)
The cross-sectional area of the pipe is constant for an inline ultrasonic flow meter with the diameter D.
The implementation of these equations without variables like density, temperature, pressure, speed of sound, and other media/fluid defined characteristics, showcases the reasons behind the versatility and accuracy of ultrasonic flow meters.
Advantages/Significance of Ultrasonic meters
(since density and speed of sound in the fluids don’t matter).
Diverse substances (including chemicals, solvents, oils, etc.) with different properties are transported and distributed by piping systems every single day with the need to monitor their flow.
The non-invasive nature of Ultrasonic flow meters makes them the goto meters in situations like this.
This is why they find applications in different industrial sectors, from chemical-related industries to food processing, water treatment, and the oil and gas sector.
Disadvantages
than the mechanical or other types of meters, as they require more efforts and components,
Asides design complexity and cost, ultrasonic flowmeters also require a level of expertise at installation/handling compared to most other types of meters.
Top Ultrasonic Flow Meters in the Market
While the market for global ultrasonic flow meter is expected to reach USD $ 2 Billion by 2024, the market has witnessed strong growth in the past few years, thanks to its applications in numerous industries today and the introduction of some newly improved variants.
Many manufacturers have developed ultrasonic flow meters with advanced technology to improve the accuracy of the measurement.
As this meter caters to industry-specific solutions, the latest developments are expected to drive the market during the forecast periods.
Top ultrasonic flow meters in the market include:
: The sonic-view, one of the best solutions for measuring low liquid flows operates on the transit-time principle.
The transducers are not in contact with the medium and there are no moving parts used within the instruments.
Unbeatable features like low ownership costs, years of maintenance-free operation, protected transducers, a life-long cycle of robust meter and its insensitive nature against pressure peaks and particles, all contribute to why the sonic-view ultrasonic flow meter is one of the best solutions in the meter market.
: Under various pipe flow conditions, this ultrasonic water meter for industrial and commercial purposes is capable of marking design-section measurements with the highest possible measuring accuracy.
The meter is battery powered and can work uninterruptedly for 10 years with only one battery; its power consumption is less than 0.5mW.
It can keep working for long without being affected by magnetic interference.
Meanwhile, it is highly reliable and sensitive, a flow velocity as low as 0.002m/s can be quickly detected.
They deliver impressive performance for a variety of gases and liquids because they can operate independently of temperature, viscosity, conductivity, pressure, density and under the toughest conditions.
The Sitrans FS220 prides itself as a best-in-class solution for straightforward flow measures as its possibilities appear to be endless.
which allows municipal and related authorities to monitor things like gas and water consumptions remotely.
The low power nature of the communication medium enables these meters to last for 5+ years on a single battery charge, way more than what can be achieved using mechanical meters.
interview/founder-of-sirab-technologies-surya-satyavolu-talks-about-safety-assured-automated-vehicle-guidance-system-for-autonomous-vehicle-transportation
Safety Assured Automated Vehicle Guidance System
solutions for automated vehicles like buses and trucks.
that will offer a significant impact on society by improving the safety of travel and road lane capacities by 5 times.
Mr.
Surya is an electrical engineer who holds a B.Tech degree in Electrical Engineering.
Subsequently, he went to the US and obtained an MSEE in DSP and Digital Communications.
He worked for several years as an embedded system and software engineer in several companies and startups.Most of his initial work was on communications products like Cellular Chipsets, Cable modems, 802.11 wireless, and Multi-Service Routers.
From 2010 onwards, he worked on Safety and Security Critical Operating Systems for Avionics and Defense Applications.
There the idea of doing automated driving with a correct architecture and safety certificate came into his mind.
Scroll down to read on as to what Mr.
Surya has to say about his venture.
We believe automated transportation when done right can address these issues.
The key point is doing it right, without which automation may add to the existing problem than addressing it.
Sirab Technologies Transportation Pvt Limited got incorporated in April 2018 and subsequently, the team is an alumnus of IIT Madras got incubated at IIT Madras Incubation Cell.
Our team comes with deep expertise in developing safety and security-critical systems for aviation, railways, and are taking a patented, high-reliable and functionally safe approach to the automated vehicle guidance system.
We have been working on understanding the challenges and identified an automated guidance system that better safer, modular, system design with a capitally less intensive and operationally less expensive approach that addresses the core problems.
in the 1950s-60s as well as the development of safety systems in the aviation industry.
We believe to realize benefits from vehicle automation, it is essential to take a systems engineering approach and have a good understanding of not just vehicles, but also the environment in which it is anticipated to be deployed, potential scenarios that are possible in those environments that critical for safety and have a fail-safe method to mitigate those scenarios.
have been developed and further developments are being carried out.
We are closely working with a couple of international commercial vehicle OEMs for vehicle integration and testing and deploy automated buses in airports to offer an efficient and reliable mobility option such as people movers within airports.
needed for calculating vehicle guidance accurately.
ᾮ Our unique design achieves those by achieving all three with a fail-safe design philosophy.
High reliability of our foundation functions of lane-keeping and platooning form the basis for achieving the correctness of intent and implementation.
Additionally, our modular approach makes it possible to assess the system for safety assurance from internal reliability metrics and external risk factors.
Each market offers its own unique challenges.
Ideally, countries in tropical regions would be a good location to deploy automation as they offer uniform weather with low feasibility of snow, fog, etc.
Having said that with the right approach and designing a good operational domain where the automated vehicles are expected to operate, i.e.
place where we can expect good control on the infrastructure, it is certainly feasible to deploy these systems.
Fortunately, in India, we have identified many such opportunities in airports, bus rapid transit corridors where these can be deployed as an early market.
Ports and industrial complexes are also good locations.
The level of service from these systems would be much better than say an urban metro transit system and at a CAPEX and OPEX costs that significantly lower than the metro systems.
We are currently with one large airport operator that has committed a letter of intent to do a large airport people mover project.
Over the last couple of years, we have received encouraging support and interest from multiple departments both in central government and state government.
We have been selected for the Government of India grant for our product development efforts, signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Government of Andhra Pradesh to explore similar opportunities in the state.
As a new technology that involves safety systems, there will be challenges that are not insurmountable and we are actively engaging with all relevant stakeholders in the country.
and aim to source and manufacture the majority of systems required for product development in India.
As for hardware devices such as radars, the market is yet to fully evolve in India, and these components have to be sourced internationally.
The core algorithms have been developed and simulated and the product is ready for prototyping and does system integration on the vehicle.
We have already identified a couple of large opportunities to do automated bus-based Airport People Mover projects, both in India and internationally.
We believe closed and controlled environments such as airports, ports are the earliest adopters for high automation before scaling to larger operating domains such as bus rapid transit corridors.
will be a TIER 1 product to be integrated by vehicle OEMs.
The guidance system itself is vehicle agnostic, i.e.
suitable for both commercial vehicles and light/personal vehicles depending on Operational Design Domains where vehicles expected to be deployed.
We foresee our infrastructure components being deployed by the infrastructure operators like the airport operators, ports or BRTS.
We see tremendous opportunity for autonomous vehicles solutions like ours which offer solutions to some of the key pain points being faced by road transport in India like Road Safety and Congestion.
The key is doing it cost-effectively from both CAPEX and OPEX while also delivering the promised benefits.
Our core solutions enable both.
We believe, globally opportunities in Automated vehicle-based People Mover systems such as in airports, bus rapid transits, ports themselves offers hundreds of billion-dollar opportunity.
The beauty of the approach that we have taken is that once the system is designed and standardized at one location, it is can be replicated in other geographies and highly scalable with almost no additional technical barriers.
This is a far better approach than the current approaches being adopted and tested where there is a significant requirement such as mapping data generation, learning specific geography, etc.
to commercialize automated vehicles.
article/design-techniques-for-reducing-emi-in-smps-circuits
Design Techniques for Reducing EMI in SMPS Circuits
which provided insights into the dangers of EMI and offered some context to how poor EMI consideration could negatively affect the market performance of a product, either due to regulation clampdowns or functionality failures.
However, beyond the complexity of their designs, SMPS presents a significant EMI generation threat due to the fast switching frequencies they employ, to attain the high efficiency for which they are known.
With more devices (potential EMI victims/source) being developed every day, overcoming EMI is becoming a major challenge for engineers and achieving electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is becoming as important as getting the device to function correctly.
For today’s article, we will look at the nature and sources of EMI in SMPS, and examine some design techniques/approaches that can be used in mitigating them.
Sources of EMI in SMPS
efforts are usually focused on minimizing emission sources (or reducing susceptibility), and eliminating/reducing coupling paths.
as the summation of many sine waves with harmonically-related frequencies.
This full Fourier spectrum of harmonics, resulting from the switching action becomes the EMI that is transmitted, from the power supply to other circuits in the device, and to nearby electronic devices that are susceptible to these frequencies.
, this alternating currents and voltages will produce an alternating electromagnetic field, and while the field’s magnitude reduces with distance, it interacts with conducting parts( like copper traces on the PCB) which act like antennas and cause additional noise on the lines, leading to EMI.
ῡrticle, EMI coupling generally occurs through; conduction (via unwanted/repurposed paths or so-called “sneak circuitsᾩ, induction (coupling by inductive or capacitive elements like transformers), and radiation (over-the-air).
By understanding these coupling paths and how they affect EMI in switch-mode power supplies, designers can create their systems in such a way that the influence of the coupling path is minimized and the spread of the interference is reduced.
Different Types of EMI Coupling Mechanisms
We will go over each of the coupling mechanisms as related to SMPS and establish the elements of SMPS designs that give rise to their existence.
is usually associated with switched currents with high di/dt, boosted by the existence of loops with fast current rise times due to poor design layout, and wiring practices that give rise to leakage inductance.
Consider the circuit below;
such that the Vnoise is given by the equation;
Vnoise = RM / (RS + RM) * M * di/dt
Where M/K is the coupling factor that depends on distance, area, and orientation of the magnetic loops, and magnetic absorption between the loops in questionᾠjust like in a transformer.
Thus, in design/PCB layouts with poor loop orientation consideration, and large current loop area, there tends to be a higher level of radiated EMI.
occurs when EMI emissions are passed along conductors (wires, cables, enclosures, and copper traces on PCBs) connecting the source of the EMI and the receiver together.
EMI coupled in this manner is common on the power supply lines and usually heavy on the H-field component.
Conduction Coupling in SMPS is either Common Mode conduction (the interference appears in-phase on the +ve and GND line) or Differential Mode (the interference appears out of phase on two conductors).
are usually caused by parasitic capacitances like those of the heatsink and transformer along with the board layout, and switching voltage waveform across the switch.
, on the other hand, are a result of the switching action which causes current pulses at the input and creates switching spikes that leads to the existence of differential noise.
occurs when a varying magnetic field exists between two parallel conductors, inducing a change in voltage along the receiving conductor.
In summary, while the major source of EMI in SMPS is the high frequency switching action along with the resultant fast di/dt or dv/dt transients, the enablers which facilitate the propagation/spreading of the generated EMI to potential victims on the same board(or external systems) are factors that result from poor component selection, poor design layout, and the existence of stray inductance/capacitance in current paths.
Design Techniques to Reduce EMI in SMPS
which we discussed earlier.
or just ensuring your devices works well when around other devices requires that you keep your emission levels below the values described in the standards.
Quite a number of design approaches exist for mitigating EMI in SMPS and we will try to cover them one after the other.
1. Go Linear
They do not generate significant EMI and will not cost as much time and money to develop.
For their efficiency, even if it may not be on par with SMPS, you can still get reasonable efficiency levels by using LDO linear regulators.
2. Use Power Modules
Following best practices to obtain a good EMI performance may not be good enough at times.
In those situations where you can’t seem to find the time or other resources to tune and get the best EMI results, one approach that usually works is switching to Power modules.
, etc.
have a wide range of SMPS Modules that already takes care of EMI and EMC problems for us.
For example, they usually have most components like inductors, connected internally inside the package, as such, a very small loop area exists inside the module and radiated EMI is reduced.
Some modules go as far as shielding the inductors and the switch node to prevent Radiated EMI from the Coil.
3. Shielding
This is achieved through the placement of noise-generating sources in the power supply, within a grounded conductive (metal) housing, with the only interface to external circuits being via in-line filters.
However, shielding adds additional cost in materials, and PCB size to the project, as such, it may be a bad idea for projects with low-cost goals.
4. Layout Optimization
The design layout is considered as one of the chief issues that facilitate the propagation of EMI across the circuit.
This is why, one of the broad, general techniques for reducing EMI in SMPS is Layout Optimization.
It’s sometimes a rather ambiguous term as it could mean different things ranging from the eradication of parasitic components to the separation of noisy nodes from noise-sensitive nodes, and the reduction of current loop areas, etc.
Some layout optimization tips for SMPS designs include;
This can be done by positioning them as far away as possible from each other to prevent electromagnetic coupling between them.
Some examples of Noise-sensitive and noisy nodes are provided in the table below;
Inductors
Sensing paths
Switch nodes
Compensation networks
High dI/dt capacitors
Feedback pin
FETs
Control Circuits
Copper traces on PCB act as antennas for Radiated EMI, as such, one of the best ways to prevent the traces directly connected to Noise-Sensitive nodes from acquiring radiated EMI is by keeping them as short as possible by moving the components to which they are to be connected, as close as possible.
For instance, a long trace from a resistor divider network that feeds into a feedback (FB) pin can act as an antenna and pick up radiated EMI around it.
The noise being fed to the Feedback pin will introduce additional noise at the system’s output, making the performance of the device unstable.
Traces/Wires that carry switching waveform should be as close as possible to one another.
Radiated EMI is directly proportional to the magnitude of current (I) and the loop area (A) through which it flows, as such, by reducing the area of the current/voltage, we can reduce the level of radiated EMI.
A good way to do this for power lines is to place the powerline and the return path over one another on adjacent layers of the PCB.
of the tracks.
An unbroken ground plane located on the outer surfaces of the PCB provides the shortest return path for EMI, especially when it is directly located below the EMI Source where it suppresses radiated EMI significantly.
Ground planes could, however, be a problem if you allow a cut through them by other traces.
The cut could increase the effective loop area and lead to significant EMI levels as the return current has to find a longer path to go around the cut, to return to the current source.
EMI Filters are a must have for Power supplies, especially for mitigating conducted EMI.
They are usually located at the input and/or output of the power supply.
At the input, they help filter noise from the mains and at the output, it prevents the noise from the supply from impacting the rest of the circuit.
In the design of EMI filters to mitigate conducted EMI, it is usually important to treat the common-mode conducted emission separately from the differential mode emission as the parameters for the filter to address them will be different.
, the input filters are usually made up of electrolytic and ceramic capacitors, combined, to efficiently attenuate differential mode current at the lower fundamental switching frequency and also at higher harmonic frequencies.
In situations where further suppression is required, an inductor is added in series with the input to form a single-stage L-C low pass filter.
the filtering can be effectively achieved by connecting bypass capacitors between the power lines(both input and output) and ground.
In situations where further attenuation is required, coupled choke inductors may be added in series with the power lines.
Generally, filter designs should consider the worst-case scenarios when selecting the components.
For instance, Common-mode EMI will be maximum with High input voltage, while Differential Mode EMI will be maximum with low voltage and high load current.
Conclusion
Taking all the points mentioned above into consideration when designing switching power supplies is usually a challenge, it is effectively one of the reasons why EMI mitigation is referred to as a “dark artᾠbut as you get more used to it, they become second nature.
Thanks to IoT and different advancements in technology, Electromagnetic compatibility and the general ability of each device to function properly under normal operating conditions, without negatively impacting the operation of other devices within its close proximity, is even more important than before.
Devices must not be susceptible to EMI from nearby intentional or unintentional sources and they must also at the same time not radiate(intentionally or unintentionally) interference at levels which could lead to other devices malfunctioning.
For cost-related reasons, it is important to consider EMC at the early stage of the SMPS design.
It is also important to consider how connecting the power supply to the main device affects the EMI dynamics in both device, as in most cases, especially for embedded SMPS, the power supply will be certified together with the device as one unit and any lapses in either could lead to failure.
case-studies/how-harmonic-distortion-affects-your-induction-motor-performance
How Harmonic Distortion Affects your Induction Motor Performance
in the plants.
At a frequency of 300 Hz and above, these losses increase further high due to skin effect, and the leakage magnetic fields caused by harmonic currents produce additional stray frequency eddy current dependent losses.
This considerable amount of iron losses can also be produced in induction motors with skewed rotors due to high-frequency-induced currents and rapid flux changes i.e.
due to hysteresis in the stator and rotor.
Squirrel cage rotors can generally withstand higher temperature levels as compared to wound rotors.
The motor windings (especially if insulation is class B or below) are also susceptible to damage due to high levels of dV/dT i.e.
rate at which the voltage rises such as those attributed to line notching and associated ringing due to the flow of harmonic currents.
.
About the Author
is an Electrical Engineer with over 11 years of rich experience in Electrical Maintenance, Installation, Testing, and Commissioning of all major electrical equipment.
He is specialized in bringing down Energy Cost of a Plant by reducing electricity bills and increasing energy efficiency.
He also reduces plant breakdown costs by implementing proper maintenance activities during routine and shutdown.
Through these Case Studies, he shares his experience and challenges faced in his work routine with the readers of Circuit Digest.
tutorial/bootstrap-sweep-circuit-using-transistors
Bootstrap Sweep Circuit using Transistors
using 555 Timer IC and op-amp.
Now here we explain about bootstrap sweep circuit theory.
Applications of Bootstrap Sweep Generator
There are basically two types of Time- Based generator, namely
Current Time-Base generator: A circuit is called the Current Time-Base generator if it generates a current signal at the output which is linearly varying with respect to time.
We find applications for these kinds of circuits in the field of ‘Electromagnetic Deflectionᾠsince the electromagnetic fields of coils and inductors are directly related to changing currents.
Voltage Time-Base generator: A circuit is called Voltage Time-Base generator if it generates a voltage signal at the output which is linearly varying with respect to time.
We find applications for these kinds of circuits in the field of ‘Electrostatic Deflectionᾠbecause electrostatic interactions are directly related to changing voltages.
it will have its applications in Electrostatic Deflection like CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope), monitors, screens, radar systems, ADC converters (Analog to Digital converter), etc.
Working of Bootstrap Sweep Circuit
The below figure shows the circuit diagram of the Bootstrap sweep circuit:
, namely Q1 and Q2.
The transistor Q1 acts as a switch in this circuit and transistor Q2 is fitted to act as an emitter follower.
The diode D1 is present here for preventing the discharge of capacitor C1 in the wrong way.
The resistors R1 and R2 are present here for biasing the transistor Q1 and keeping it turned ON by default.
As mentioned above, the transistor Q2 acts in emitter follower configuration, so whatever the voltage appears at the base of the transistor, the same value will appear at its emitter.
So the voltage at the output ‘Voᾠis equal to the voltage at the base of the transistor, which is the voltage across capacitor C2.
The resistor R4 and R3 are present here to protect the transistors Q1 and Q2 from high currents.
From the start, the transistor Q1 is turned ON because of biasing and because of this, the capacitor C2 will be completely discharged through Q1 which in turn results in output voltage becoming zero.
So when Q1 is not triggered, the output voltage Vo is equal to zero.
At the same time, when Q1 is not triggered, the capacitor C1 will be completely charged to voltage +Vcc through diode D1.
During the same time, when Q1 is ON the base of Q2 will be driven to the ground to keep the transistor Q2 OFF state.
Since the transistor Q1 is ON by default, to turn it OFF a negative trigger of duration ‘Tsᾠis given to the gate of transistor Q1 as shown in the graph.
Once the transistor Q1 enters high impedance state, the capacitor C1 which is charged to voltage +Vcc will try to discharge itself.
So a current ‘Iᾠflows through the resistor and to the capacitor C2 as shown in the figure.
And because of this current flow, the capacitor C2 starts charging and a voltage ‘Vc2ᾠwill appears across it.
In the bootstrap circuit, the capacitance of C1 is very much higher than C2, so the electric charge stored by capacitor C1 when it is fully charged is very high.
Now even if the capacitor C1 is discharging itself, the voltage across its terminals will not change much.
And because of this stable voltage across capacitor C1, the current ‘Iᾠvalue will be stable through the discharge of the capacitor C1.
With the current ‘Iᾠbeing stable throughout the process, the rate of charge received by the capacitor C2 will also be stable throughout.
With this stable accumulation of charge, the capacitor C2 terminal voltage will also rise slowly and linearly.
Now with the capacitor C2 voltage is rising linearly with time, the output voltage also rises linearly with time.
You can see in the graph during the trigger time ‘Tsᾠthe terminal voltage across capacitor C2 rising linearly with respect to time.
After the end of trigger time if the negative trigger given to transistor Q1 is removed, then the transistor Q1 will enter in the low impendence state by default and act as a short circuit.
Once this happens, the capacitor C2 which is in parallel with transistor Q1 will discharge itself completely to have its terminal voltage drop sharply.
So during the restoration time ‘Trᾠthe terminal voltage of capacitor C2 will drop sharply to zero and the same could be seen in the graph.
Once this cycle of charge and discharge is completed, the second cycle will start with the gate trigger of transistor Q1.
And because of this continuous triggering, a sawtooth waveform is formed at the output, which is the end result of the Bootstrap Sweep circuit.
Here the capacitor C2 which helps in providing constant current as feedback to the capacitor C1 is called ‘Bootstrapping capacitorᾮ
interview/cost-effective-iot-based-sensors-to-provide-real-time-microclimate-information-to-farmers-harsh-agarwal-ceo-of-neerx-technovation
Cost Effective IoT Based Sensors to Provide Accurate and Real-Time Microclimate Information to Farmers: Harsh Agarwal, CEO of NEERx Technovation
Soil health monitoring, irrigation scheduling, hi-tech greenhouses, evapotranspiration studies, watershed management, land reclamation, drought, flood forecasting, etc.
play a vital role in farming.
Farmers in India have been facing a lot of problems in terms of real-time and on-field data analytics.
Undoubtedly, there are certain companies that offer the solution but the cost of imported and high-end technologies is so high that farmers can’t afford it.
, which provides an accurate and real-time farm microclimate information using dielectric technology.
In the quest to know more about the startup, NEERx and their sensor, we asked the CEO of the startup, Harsh Agrawal a few questions to which his answers were quite interesting.
As the CEO of the company, Harsh handles various responsibilities like product development, overall execution, finance, strategy, etc.
He is an electrical engineer by profession but has experience in IoT, embedded, and wireless network solutions as well.
Harsh derives motivation from a lot of peer entrepreneurs to align with vision and mission for his own startup.
He is passionate to understand the bottom of pyramid problems and develop solutions that are innovative and scalable.
Here is, what he has to say about agricultural conditions in India, challenges, solutions, and a lot more.
are not accessible.
Especially in India, the cost of implementing imported technologies is too high and would never reach farmers in decades.
A lot of companies are looking at data as gold but to generate such data out of agricultural fields requires high precision as well as accuracy.
We started approaching this problem in 2017 with the bottom-up pyramid approach and crucially evaluated each and every aspect to ensure we build a solution that can really scale across India.
(validated and reported).
Our major competitors are companies based in the US, UK, and Australia, who are not offering economical solutions for Indian scenario.
is the core of SHOOL for sensing.
Using SHOOL and an array of other sensors real-time microclimate information is gathered and send to the cloud.
This data can then be further used to link these parameters and derive drought-related information, pest infestation, heat stresses, germination rates, etc.
The data serves as input to a lot of government agencies, remote sensing companies, agri-data analytics, and agri-focused companies for further data processing.
The variability for the whole day, week, month, and the year is tracked with such a huge amount of data.
This opens up space for actionable intelligence and predictions.
A lot of coding is involved just to ensure no data packets go missing or haywire as IoT station would mostly be installed in remote locations.
The accuracy of more than 97% has been achieved through a lot of failures and multiple field testing activities.
While developing SHOOL, we focused on having a scientific approach and patience really played an important role to deliver the results.
The efforts put in by our team even while it was 50-degree scorching sun just to ensure we have enough samples to validate our product resulted in something great.
The problem of deploying such sensors is an improper understanding of soil and its hydrology.
There are protocols that need to be followed while installing such sensors.
NEERX does a field survey to identify the most optimized way to place an array of sensors based on land topology, crop type, and a lot more other parameters.
The data transmission systems we use have the capability to switch over to 2G/3G or 4G modes depending on the availability of network which really helps in remote installations.
Receiving appraises from such prominent institutes and partnering with them to foster this technology has worked wonders for us.
The intellectual support as well as validation support that we have received from ISRO especially took us on a course of long roads of development.
We leveraged their network and presence they have across India to ensure we reach out to a larger audience.
Now they trust our product anytime better than even imported sensors due to the collaborative efforts.
A lot of recent studies have shown how climate change is damping out our natural resources.
Therefore, monitoring our natural resources and reversing the climate change phenomenon is very important.
With SHOOL, the Water and Energy cycles could be understood and what are the problems in land and hydrology exchanges can be figured out with long term deployments.
The team is actively involved in business development to reach out to a wider audience.
We now have our presence in more than 10 states which have agriculture as their primary activities.
We tie up and hold pilots for various government organizations and PSUs to expand our reach.
Our product is available on various government and business marketplaces for trade as well as direct use.
article/different-levels-of-autonomous-driving-and-where-we-are-today
Different Levels of Autonomous Driving and Where we are Today
technologies.
Just recently, Uber has also announced bringing self-driving cars to Washington, DC.
GM and Honda have also announced the launch of a new self-driving car named Origin.
that by 2025 we’ll see around 8 million autonomous or semi-autonomous vehicles on the road.The autonomous vehicle global market is expected to reach$36 billion by 2025, with North America owning 29% of all the self-driving vehicles in the world.
The numbers speak for themselves, but there was even a prediction by guardian stating “You’ll be a permanent backseat driver in 2020ᾠbut the fact is we are not even close to something like that today.
Self-Driving cars on its own have many levels in terms of functionality and it’s not something to be compared with Si-Fi movies.
Yes, Knight Rider has to wait!! To understand self-driving cars better, let's look at the various levels of self-driving cars with its functionality and who is manufacturing them.
Autonomous Driving Levels
systems can detect certain objects, do basic calculations, can alert the driver of bad road conditions and in some cases, automatically stop the vehicle.
At this level, the driver performs all operating tasks like steering, braking, accelerating or slowing down, etc.
The automated system may issue warnings and momentarily intervene but has no sustained vehicle control.
Vehicles of level 0 come endowed with features like Forward Collision-avoidance Assist (FCA), Lane Keeping Assist (LKA), Blind-Spot Collision Warning (BCW), and Driver Attention Warning (DAW), yet the driver has to take the charge and control the vehicle.
Most of the vehicles that we use are still Level 0 today.
2007 Ford Focus, 2010 Toyota Prius are some of the examples of cars that are at level 0 of autonomy.
At this level, the driver and the system share control of the vehicle.
The driver handles all accelerating, braking, and monitoring of the vehicle whereas the system performs functions like maintaining a set speed (cruise control) or engine and brake power to maintain and vary the speed (Adaptive Cruise Control or ACC), lane-keeping assistance, etc.
Level 1 autonomy can be found in almost all cars today, including the 2018 Toyota Corolla (Toyota Safety Sense1) and the 2018 Nissan Sentra (Intelligent Cruise Control), Kia Stinger GT, Audi A 7 (2010+), 2011 Jeep Cherokeeseveral car models by Chevrolet, etc.
Also referred to as ‘hands-offᾬ this level vehicles can control both steering and accelerating/decelerating.
The person at the driver’s seat must take control of the car at any time when necessary.
Many automakers like Hyundai, Kia, Genesis, etc.
are developing vehicles at Level 2.
Tesla Autopilot, Volvo Pilot Assist, Cadillac CT6's Super Cruise, Mercedes-BenzDistronic Plus,NissanProPilot Assist, and Audi Traffic Jam Assist are some examples of Level 2 autonomous capabilities.
Tesla’s Autopilot is asuite of driver assistance technologies including Traffic-AwareCruise Control andAutosteer with lane change that allows automatic steering on undivided roads but with speed restrictions.
GM’s Super Cruise is another excellent example of Level 2 autonomous cars.
It is a Super Cruise-enabled car that allows you to take your hands off the steering wheel.
) although the driver needs to be attentive but can disengage from “safety-criticalᾠfunctions like braking and leave it to the technology when conditions are safe.
Many current Level 3 vehicles require no human attention to the road at speeds less than 37 miles per hour.
Audi A8 is the first production car to have Level 3 autonomy.
At the push of a button, the A8′s AI Traffic JamPilot manages starting, steering, throttle and brakingin slow-moving traffic at up to 60km/h on major roads where a physical barrier separates the two carriageways.When the system reaches its limits the driver is alerted to take over the driving.
Joining the queue is the Honda Motors that plans to become the first Japanese automaker to commercially launch a vehicle with SAE Level 3 autonomous driving technology later this year.
Also referred to as ‘mind-off, vehicles at this level are capable of steering, braking, accelerating, monitoring the vehicle and roadway as well as responding to events, determining when to change lanes, turn, and use signals.
The autonomous driving system at this level would first notify the driver when conditions are safe, and only then does the driver switch the vehicle into this mode.
It cannot determine between more dynamic driving situations like traffic jams or a merge onto the highway.
Honda has announced that it is working towards a Level 4 vehicleby 2026.
Lyft, Uber, Google, and more have been working on Level 4 vehicles for quite some time now.
Vehicles at this level are the ones that require no human interaction at all.
In simple words, vehicles at level 4 are fully autonomous.
Robotic taxis, Audi's Aicon concept are the vehicles of this level.
There is no need for pedals, brakes or a steering wheel, as the autonomous vehicle system controls all critical tasks, monitoring of the environment and identification of unique driving conditions like traffic jams.A few years back, NVIDIA announced its AI computer, Drive PX Pegasus to help achieve level 5 autonomy where the driver simply plugs in the destination and leave the rest up to the vehicle itself.
Several current concept cars including the Volkswagen Group SeDriC (SElf-DRIving Car) and the Audi AIcon concept are Level 5 autonomous vehicles.
The Numo is a level 5 vehicle with no space for a driver.
Talking about autonomous taxis, the ride-sharing giant, Uber has signed a deal with Volvo to develop self-driving vehicles.
Any time soon we can see, the Uber self-driving taxis manufactured by Volvo running on the roads.
Nissan too has begun the trials of its Easy Ride service in Yokohama, Japan and it is anticipated that there will be a full-fledged autonomous taxi service up and running in time for the Tokyo Olympics this year.
Other than that, Tesla is also working towards making its cars work as a self-driving taxi when not in use.
Not just the automotive giants; various startups like Fish Eye Box, Flux Auto, etc.
are also contributing to the manufacturing of self-driven cars.According to the top car-makers, autonomous vehicles (Level 4) will start to hit the roads by 2020.
However, most of the research and consulting firms believe that it will not be that soon and level 4 cars will only gain some market share in 2025, while level 5 cars may be a reality 10 years from now.
To sum up, we can say that with the advancements of technology for automated driving cars over the past years, one thing that we can be sure of is that we are witnessing the automobile revolution.
There is no doubt that automobile manufacturers will continue to implement advanced technologies and roll out more and more automated vehicles.
tutorial/construction-and-operation-of-director-online-starter-circuit
Construction and Operation of Direct Online Starter Circuit
We all know that motors consume electric power horribly and this high power consumption is the result of current drawn by the winding of the motor.
So higher the current drawn by the motor, the higher will be the power consumed by it and higher will be the heat generated.
This heat will usually be dissipated into the environment through radiation or by direct contact conduction.
But in some cases where there is no proper ventilation or the environment is hot, then the armature winding may burn because of excessive heat.
So the motor winding current needs to be monitored closely to avoid high current flow for long periods of time.
So, to avoid the flow of high currents for long periods of time, motors are usually provided with protection systems of various types.
Usually, these protection systems are required for three-phase industrial motors that drive high power loads.
And the Direct Online Starter is a mechanism that provides overload protection for three-phase squirrel cage induction motors.
to Three-phase induction motor are:
Over-current protection or Short circuit protection.
Overload protection.
Isolated motor switching setup.
DOL starter consists of MCCB (circuit breaker) and fuse setup to disconnect the motor from the supply in case of a short circuit.
DOL starter consists of an electro-mechanical setup which will disconnect the motor from the power supply if the motor is overloaded or the motor draws current more than the rated value.
Since high power motors are dangerous, the DOL starters are designed in a way that allows the customer to turn ON and OFF the motor indirectly.
The three features mentioned above are important for low and medium power induction motors used in industries.
So DOL starters are popular and extensively used.
Direct Online Starter Working
For avoiding confusion, we will disassemble the original DOL starter and discuss about each of its sections.
we are discussing below is only for understanding the working principle, the original design of the starter may be different.
The above figure shows the circuit connections between MCCB, fuses, and motor.
The basic function of this section of the DOL starter is to protect the motor from faults and short circuits.
The MCCB here will be selected to match the motor ratings and in case of any fault in connections or motor windings, this MCCB will trip immediately disconnecting the entire system from the main power line.
MCCB is usually the first protection layer for the entire system as shown above.
These are also installed in our homes for safety.
here.
In the above figure, the internal structure of the contactor setup is shown which is present in 3 phase direct online starter and it is connected to an induction motor.
Here the three-phase power is connected to the motor through three normally open metal contacts namely ‘C1ᾬ ‘C2ᾠand ‘C3ᾮ So under rest conditions, no current flows in the circuit and the motor stays OFF.
Also at this time, the ‘ON BUTTONᾠwill be open and no current flow through the coil.
because of the current flow as shown below.
Since the coil generates a magnetic field here, the metal block suspended with a spring will get attracted to the coil and moves towards it.
Now that the metal block is moving, the entire contactor setup will also move along with it as shown in the figure.
As a result of this movement, the metal contacts C1, C2, and C3 will short the open terminals present between the power line and the stator terminals thus turning ON the motor.
In more simple terms, after the button is pressed monetarily, the motor will get power from the source because of the movement of the three-phase contactor.
Also, with the movement of the three-phase contactor, the spring will be stretched and it will be exerting a force on the metal block to place it back on its initial position.
After momentarily pressing the ON button and releasing it, the current in the coil, which should be zero, will still be flowing because there will be another path for the current to flow after the three-phase contactor moves to the final position.
You can see in the figure a closed circuit formed for the current to flow through the ‘SWᾠmetal contact.
with the help of ‘SWᾠmetal contact and keeps the connection between three-phase power and the motor.
to the above circuit as below.
Here the ‘OFF BUTTONᾠwill act as a short circuit in rest position and so there will be no change to the operation of the circuit we discussed above.
But once the ‘OFF BUTTONᾠis pressed, the circuit loop formed between the power line and coil will be broken, which results in current flowing through the coil to become zero.
Now that current through the coil is zero, the coil will start demagnetizing itself and once the coil loses its magnetization completely the three-phase contactor moves back to its initial position because of the force exerted by the stretched spring.
Obviously, now that the three-phase contactor moved back to rest, the supply voltage to the motor will be broken, resulting in the stop of rotor movements.
Even after the stop button is released, the three-phase contactor will stay in rest until the start button is pressed again to magnetize the coil.
Hence we can conclude that using this setup, we can turn ON the motor forever by pressing one button and stop the motor forever by pressing the other button.
So, whenever the motor draws the power from the power line, these three windings get magnetized.
And whenever they get magnetized, the metal rings fixated on the shaft will be attracted by the coils.
Normally, this will not be an issue but it will become prominent once the motor is overloaded.
So for understanding the function of this section, let us consider that the motor was turned ON sometime ago and is overloaded.
Now with the motor is heavily loaded, the armature winding will draw heavy currents from the power source and thereby magnetizing G1, G2, and G3 coils heavily indirectly.
In the presence of this heavy magnetic field, the metal rings will overcome the spring opposition to align themselves with their respective coils.
And once the metal rings shift to the final position the ‘OL contactᾠwill also shift with them to break the loop of ‘COIL-Lᾮ
So the end result of heavily loading motor is breakage of the current loop formed between the power line and ‘COIL-Lᾮ We can see here that this basically functions the same as pushing the stop button we mentioned above.
The end results in both cases are forever turn OFF of the motor.
Hence overloading the motor will lead to disconnection of power line and motor turn OFF.
Direct Online Starter Control Circuit
Up until now, we have studied the three sections each providing a special function.
And we need to join these sections together to form a DOL starter.
Here you can see the final internal structure of the Direct Online Starter.
In the final conclusion:
MCCB-FUSE section provides short circuit and fault protection for the motor.
Three-phase contactor setup will provide simple and safe bi-stable switching of the motor.
O.L contactor setup will protect the motor from overload burn out.
Advantages of Direct Online Starter
Most economical and cheapest starter: Of all the starters present for three-phase induction motor, DOL starter is the most cheapest and economical one.
Easy to operate: The starter has only two buttons for ON and OFF and a knob for setting the overload safety making it easy to operate.
Easy maintenance: Since the internal structure of the starter is simple the engineers can easily find faults and rectify them.
Since there is no startup protection the motor fixed with DOL starter provides 100% starting torque.
The dimensions of DOL are small making it compact and reliable.
Disadvantages ofDirect Online Starter
Since there is no startup protection, the DOL starter does not limit the starting current.
Unnecessary high starting torque during motor startup.
Only suitable for low end and medium power motors.
Since there is no startup protection the power line on which motor is connected will experience voltage dips during motor startup.
This fluctuation in voltage may harm other electrical equipment feeding on the same supply.
The motor is subjected to thermal Stress which affects the life of the motor.
The mechanical stress on the motor is increased because of unnecessary high starting torque during motor start-up.
article/superheterodyne-am-receiver
Superheterodyne AM Receiver - Working with Block Diagram and Schematics
for short with the help of a block diagram.
Most AM receivers found today are of superheterodyne type because they allow for the use of high selectivity filters in their Intermediate Frequency (IF) stages and they have high sensitivity (internal ferrite rod antennas can be used) due to the filters in the IF stage which helps them in getting rid of unwanted RF signals.
Also, the IF amplifier strip providing high gain, good strong signal response because of the use of automatic gain control in amplifiers and ease of operation (only controls volume, power switch, and the tuning knob).
Block Diagram of Superheterodyne AM Receiver
which is shown below.
As you can see the block diagram has 11 different stages, each stage has a specific function which is explained below
RF Filter: The first block is the ferrite rod antenna coil and variable capacitor combo, that serves two purposes - RF is induced into the coil and the parallel capacitor controls the resonant frequency of it, as ferrite antennas receive the best when the resonant frequency of the coil and capacitor is equal to the station's carrier frequency ᾠthis way it acts as an input filter of the receiver.
Heterodyne Local Oscillator: The second block is the heterodyne, also known as the local oscillator (LO).
The frequency of the local oscillator is set, so either the sum or the difference of the RF signal’s frequency and the LO’s frequency is equal to the IF used in the receiver (usually around 455 kHz).
Mixer: The third block is the mixer, the RF signal and the LO signal is fed to the mixer to produce the desired IF.
Mixers found in common AM receivers output the sum, the difference of the LO and RF’s frequencies and the LO and RF signals themselves.
Most often in simple transistor radios, the heterodyne and the mixer are made using one transistor.
In higher-quality receivers and those that use dedicated integrated circuits, such as the TCA440, these stages are separate, allowing for more sensitive reception due to the mixer outputting only the sum and difference frequencies.
In one transistor LO-mixers, the transistor operates as a common-base Armstrong oscillator and the RF taken from a coil wound on the ferrite rod, separate from the resonant circuit’s coil, is fed to the base.
At frequencies different from the resonant frequency of the antenna resonant circuit, it presents low impedance, so the base stays grounded for the LO signal but not for the input signal, due to the antenna circuit being of parallel resonant type (low impedance at frequencies different from resonance, almost infinite impedance at the resonant frequency).
First IF Filter: The fourth block is the first IF filter.
In most AM receivers, it is a resonant circuit placed in the collector of the mixer transistor with the resonant frequency equal to the IF frequency.
Its purpose is to filter off all signals with a frequency different from the IF frequency because those signals are unwanted mixing products and don’t carry the audio signal of the station we want to listen to.
First IF Amplifier: The fifth block is the first IF amplifier.
Gains of 50 to 100 in each IF stages are common if the gain is too high, distortion can take place, and if the gain is too high, IF filters are too close to each other and not properly shielded, parasitic oscillation can take place.The amplifier is controlled by AGC (Automatic Gain Control) voltage from the demodulator.
AGC lowers the gain of the stage, causing the output signal to be roughly the same, regardless of the input signal amplitude.
In transistor AM receivers, the AGC signal is most often fed to the base and has a negative voltage ᾠin NPN transistors pulling the base bias voltage lower, reduces gain.
Second IF Filter: The sixth block is the second IF filter, just like the first one it is a resonant circuit placed in the collector of the transistor.
It only lets signals of the IF frequency ᾠimproving selectivity.
Second IF Amplifier: The seventh block is the second IF amplifier, it is practically the same as the first IF amp except it is not controlled by AGC, as having too many AGC controlled stages, increases distortion.
Third IF Filter: the eighth block is the third IF filter, just like the first and the second one is a resonant circuit placed in the collector of the transistor.
It only lets signals of the IF frequency ᾠimproving selectivity.
It feeds the IF signal to the detector.
Detector: The ninth block is the detector, usually in the form of a germanium diode or a diode-connected transistor.
It demodulates AM by rectifying the IF.
On its output, there is a strong IF ripple component that is filtered out by a resistor-capacitor low pass filter, so only AF component remains, it is fed to the audio amp.
The audio signal is further filtered to provide the AGC voltage, like in a regular DC power supply.
Audio Amplifier: The tenth block is the audio amplifier; it amplifies the audio signal and passes it onto the speaker.
Between the detector and the audio amplifier, a volume control potentiometer is used.
Speaker: The last block is the speaker (usually 8 ohms, 0.5W) that outputs audio to the user.
The speaker is sometimes connected to the audio amplifier through a headphone jack that disconnects the speaker when headphones are plugged in.
Superheterodyne AM Receiver Circuit
The below circuit is an example of a simple transistor radio circuit constructed using TR830 super sensitive transistor from Sony.
The circuit might appear complicated on the first look, but if we compare it with the block diagram that we learned earlier, it becomes simple.
So, let’s split each section of the circuit to explain its working.
ᾠL1 is the ferrite rod antenna, it forms a resonant circuit with C2-1 and C1-1 variable capacitor in parallel.
The secondary winding couples into the base of mixer transistor X1.
The LO signal is fed to the emitter from the LO by C5.
Output IF is taken from the collector by IFT1, the coil is tapped on the collector in an auto-transformer fashion, because if the resonant circuit was connected directly between the collector and Vcc the transistor would load the circuit considerably and the bandwidth would be too high ᾠaround 200kHz.
This tapping reduces bandwidth to 30kHz.
, C1-2 is tuned alongside C1-1 in order that the difference of the LO and RF frequencies is always 455kHz.
The LO frequency is determined by L2 and the total capacitance of C1-2 and C2-2 in series with C8.
L2 provides feedback for oscillations from the collector to the emitter.
The base is RF grounded.
To use a transformer to feed the base of a transistor amplifier, we put the secondary between the base and the bias and put a decoupling capacitor between bias and transformer secondary to close the circuit for the signal.
This is a more efficient solution than feeding the signal through a coupling capacitor to the base connected directly to bias resistors
TM is a signal strength meter measuring current flowing into the IF amp, as higher input signals cause more current to flow through the IF transformer into the second IF amp, increasing IF amp supply current that the meter measures.
C14 filters the supply voltage along with R9 (off-screen), as RF and electric grid hum can be induced into the coil of TM meter.
, bias is fixed set by R10 and R11, C15 ground the base for IF signals; it’s connected to the un-decoupled R12 to provide negative feedback in order to decrease distortion, all else is the same as in the first amp.
It demodulates the IF and supplies the negative AGC voltage.
Germanium diodes are used, because of their forward voltage being two times lower than silicon diodes, causing higher receiver sensitivity and lower audio distortion/ R13, C18 and C19 form a PI topology low-pass audio filter, while R7 controls AGC strength and forms a low-pass filter with C10 that filters the AGC voltage from both the IF and the AF signal.
S2 and C20 form a tone control circuit ᾠwhen the switch is pressed C20 grounds higher audio frequencies, acting as a crude low-pass filter, this was important in early AM radios, as speakers had very bad low frequency performance and received audio sounded “tinnyᾮ Negative feedback from the output is applied to the emitter circuit of the driver transistor.
T1 inverts the phase of signals coming to the base of X7 versus the phase at base of X8, T2 turns the half-wave current pulls of each transistor back to a whole waveform and matches the higher transistor amp impedance (200 ohms) to the 8-ohm speaker.
One transistor pulls current when the input signal is at waveform positive and the other one when the waveform is negative.
R26 and C29 provide negative feedback, reducing distortion and improving audio quality and frequency response.
J and SP are connected in a way that switches the speaker off when headphones are plugged in.
The audio amp provides around 100mW of power, sufficient for an entire room.
interview/nikhilesh-mishra-ceo-of-grinntech-technologies-on-how-his-startup-became-leading-lithium-battery-technology-provider-in-india
Nikhilesh Mishra, CEO of Grinntech Technologies Shares How His Company Became a Leading Lithium Battery Technology Provider in India
are looked upon as an alternative green way of commutation but to make EVs more affordable and practical, we need much more efficient batteries and battery-charging technology.
in the country.With some of the major battery manufacturers licensing Grinntech’s technologies & solutions, the company is fast paving a way for electric vehicles and stationary energy storage to go the mainstream.
In the quest to know more about the company and to understand how their lithium batteries are bringing about changes, we asked Nikhilesh Mishra, CEO, and co-founder of the company some questions.
Here is what he has to say.
It struck me then that my career span will see the transition from gasoline engines to EVs and the journey of learning about EVs and battery systems started.
After graduation, Puneet (a friend from college) and I decided to start a company in the EV domain.
We started experimenting with different types of batteries and EV business models.
We experimented with Zinc-Air Battery, Sodium-Nickel-Chloride Battery, Lithium-ion Battery, Battery swapping, EV conversion kit, etc.
as well as Stationary energy storage applications.
We were ready with basic level technology and some prototypes by 2016, but the high cost of battery and EV was a big hurdle for its adoption.
Keep in mind that there was no FAME subsidy at that time.
That was the time when we came into contact with CBEEV (Centre of Battery Engineering and Electric Vehicle) at IIT Madras.
CBEEV is a collaboration of startups, Industry, and Academia aimed at finding solutions for problems of strategic importance.
Our initial development was focused on swapping ecosystems since we had the dual goal of creating a product as well as a market.
We used this opportunity to develop a wide range of products from small 2-wheeler batteries to larger Car, Bus and even Tractor batteries.
We had the opportunity to work with Big OEMs like Mahindra, Tafe, and Tata Motors, etc.
The Lithium-ion battery value chain can be broadly divided into three parts.
The value chain begins with the mining and refining of raw materials like Lithium, Nickel, Cobalt, Manganese, Graphite, Copper and Aluminum, etc.
These materials are then processed to make the Anode, Cathode, Separator, and Electrolyte materials.
This activity is about 35% of the value chain and is currently dominated by big Chinese companies, although there are some Korean and European companies as well.
The second stage is the conversion of these raw materials into Lithium-ion cells.
This process involves some customization, mostly in the form of additives and electrolytes that define the behaviors of the cells.
This activity adds another 30% in the value chain and is being done by companies like LG, Samsung, Panasonic, CATL and BYD, etc.
, Mechanical Packaging and Cooling solutions, etc.
This activity is adding the last 35% in the value chain and is being done by Grinntech and companies like us.
The technical capabilities needed to perform these tasks are in ascending order, more importantly from the time requirement point of view.
For example, developing the technology to convert the cell to the battery could take 2 to 3 years while 5 to 10 years could be needed to develop technology for superior quality Lithium-ion cells.
Making raw material is more of fundamental research and could take decades.
Grinntech has developed these technologies in the last 3 years and started commercializing them.
(BMS for the safety of battery).
These technologies although complex have been successfully developed by Grinntech and now we have world-class batteries for safety-critical Automotive applications.
There are a lot of parameters that define battery superiority.
We generally group them as Performance, Safety, and Features
and results in a lot of range in a small volume for the user.
which are a gold standard in Automotive applications.
Functional safety compliant batteries are safe in normal use but it’s also safe when it fails by failing in a controlled manner that safeguards the user.
, in particular, is very important for swapping application and shared mobility as it makes possible to use the underground parking places because of NBIoT low frequency and thus better penetration.
We have faced challenges in multiple aspects of the supply chain.
In order to produce a product that can compete on the world stage, what we ask of our vendors must also be cutting edge.
There are processes and capabilities required which are currently unheard of in India.
Grinntech is built on the belief that a “design and make in India philosophyᾠis what will put us on the world EV stage.
Because of this, we have put tremendous resources and efforts into domestic vendor development and have simply not taken “not possible in Indiaᾠfor an answer.
We still have some ways to go to compete with China in terms of costs and timelines, but over the years, we have been able to build an eco-system that we believe will soon be world-class.
Being a new technology, there simply are not enough people with prior experience of developing Lithium-ion batteries.
Our approach has been to hire people, train them on this technology and then they start contributing.
This makes the process slow and costly.
With persistence and a culture of knowledge sharing Grinntech has been able to develop a team of 50+ professionals from different domains, fully experienced in developing Lithium-ion batteries now.
as wants are many times influenced by the wrong perception of technology or marketing gimmick).
On the technology side, most of the problem comes from getting the supply chain right as I have previously discussed.
Getting the right part with the right quality and timeline has been a nightmare, but now things are much more in control.
Continuously changing technology and changing market dynamics is also not helping as well.
The silver lining is that all these challenges are being faced by everyone.
Grinntech with its agile approach of product development has been better able to respond to challenges much faster and come up with a variety of products suitable for Indian needs.
This solidifies our belief that battery is playing the most important role in EV adoption and localizing battery manufacturing in India is of most significant strategic importance.
etc.
Now that we have covered the base technology, we are starting the volume production of batteries.
For that, we are setting up our first assembly line which will manufacture in large volume batteries for 2-Wheelers and 3-Wheelers.
We will be putting efforts into two different aspects now.
, since, these are the only high-volume consumption applications right now.
We have come up with our flagship line of products which will be unveiled soon.
Check out the sneak peek image below.
ᾮ We are already working with multiple OEMs on these Co-Creation products and they will be unveiled in due course of time.
We believe the Indian EV market is going in the right direction.
The FAME-2 subsidy has been helpful in increased EV adoption and I appreciate the government’s move - especially the approach of localization and quality improvement in order to qualify for the FAME-2 subsidy.
Although the initial adoption of EV has been slow in India, we believe that in due course of time, this will change and Indian EV adoption will be faster than the global pace.
The reason is that Indian automotive applications such as the distances traveled, and traffic conditions are well suited for EV adoption.
We do not believe that India is a cost-sensitive market but rather a value-sensitive market.
We are very close to the point when the value derived out of EV ownership will surpass that of ICE vehicles.
Complete adoption of EV is a herculean task that may take decades to complete.
We believe the 2-Wheeler and 3-Wheeler will lead the adoption followed by Bus and then Car.
In the next 5 years, we will see a significant portion of 2-Wheelers and 3-Wheelers shifting to EV while Buses and Cars will probably take 10+ years to significantly shift to EV.
tutorial/calibration-of-ammeter-voltmeter-and-wattmeter-using-potentiometer
Calibration of Ammeter, Voltmeter, and Wattmeter using Potentiometer
Before going into detail, let us first discuss the important concept used in this article.
If we have two voltage sources of the same value connected in parallel as shown below, then there will be no current flow between them.
This is because the potential values of both sources are the same and neither of the sources can push charge on to the other.
So in the circuit, the galvanometer does not show any deflection.
We will use the same phenomenon of balancing two voltage sources in the calibration process.
Calibration of Potentiometer
The above figure shows the circuit diagram for potentiometer calibration.
In the figure, a standard cell with voltage 1.50V is used which doesn’t produce voltage fluctuations even in millivolts upon loading.
This kind of stable source is necessary for calibrating potentiometer without any error.
The conductive scale is scaled accurately to avoid miss reading during measurements.
The conductive scale also has a smooth surface with clean-cut dimensions for equal resistance distribution along all its length.
The rheostat is present for adjusting the flow of current in the circuit loop and thereby we can adjust the voltage drop per unit length along the conductive scale.
A galvanometer is also connected here for visualizing the defection that happens in case of current flow between the standard cell loop and conductive scale loop.
The unknown EMF here is connected to the galvanometer for measurement after the calibration of the potentiometer.
First, turn ON the power and adjust the rheostat to allow a current of a few hundred milliamperes to flow in the main circuit loop.
Because the conductive scale is also in the main loop the same current flows through it producing a voltage drop.
Although the voltage drop appears across the metal scale will be distributed all along its body evenly.
After the appearance of the voltage drop along the conductive scale, if we take the sliding contact and move along the metal scale from zero, then current flows from secondary circuit to primary circuit because of circuit imbalance.
And as the sliding contact moves further away from zero, the magnitude of this current flow decreases.
This is because, as the contact area increases, the voltage drop across the scaled area will get close to the voltage of the standard cell.
So at a certain point, the voltage drop across the scaled area will be equal to the voltage of the standard cell and at that point, there will no current flow between two circuits.
Now that a galvanometer is connected in the secondary circuit, it will show a deviation on its display because of current flow and higher the current more will be the deviation.
Based on this, the galvanometer will show no deviation only when both the circuits are balanced and this is the state we will be trying to achieve for calibrating the potentiometer.
For better understanding, let’s see the circuit shown below which shows the state of balance.
this voltage drop ‘Vᾠmust be equal to the voltage of the standard cell and there will be zero deviation in galvanometer reading.
Now by measuring this exact length at which galvanometer shows zero, we can calibrate the potentiometer scale based on the standard cell voltage value.
So 1cm length of scale holds = 1.5v/100cm = 0.005V = 5mV.
After knowing the voltage drop per centimeter in the potentiometer scale, connect the unknown voltage to the secondary circuit and slide the contact to measure the length at which we will have zero deviation.
After knowing this length of scale at which balance takes place, we can measure the value of unknown EMF as,
V = (length of contact) x (5mV).
Applications of Potentiometers
In addition to the measurement of unknown voltage, the potentiometer can also be used to measure the current and power, it just needs a couple of extra components for measuring them.
Also, since the potentiometer is a DC device, the instruments to be calibrated must be DC moving iron or electrodynamometer types.
Calibration of Voltmeter using Potentiometer
In the circuit, the most important component for the calibration process is a suitable stable DC voltage supply.
This is because any fluctuations in supply voltage will cause an error in the voltmeter calibration thereby leading to an entire failure of the experiment.
So standard voltage cell with stable terminal value is taken as a source and connected in parallel with voltmeter which needs to be calibrated.
The two trim pots ‘RV1ᾠand ’RV2’are used for adjusting the voltage that is to appear across the voltmeter as shown in the figure.
A voltage ratio box is also connected in parallel with the voltmeter to divide the voltage across the voltmeter and get appropriate value suitable for connecting the potentiometer.
So to start, just provide the power to the circuit to get a reading on the voltmeter and an unknown voltage at the voltage ratio box output.
Now we will use a calibrated potentiometer to measure this unknown voltage.
After getting the potentiometer reading, check whether the potentiometer reading matches the voltmeter reading.
Since potentiometer measures the true value of voltage, if the potentiometer reading does not match with the voltmeter reading, then a negative or positive error is indicated.
And for correction, a calibration curve can be drawn with the help of the readings of voltmeter and potentiometer.
Also, for accuracy of measurements, it is necessary to measure voltages near the maximum range of the potentiometer as far as possible.
Calibration of Ammeter using Potentiometer
As mentioned above, we will use a suitable stable DC supply voltage to avoid the errors in calibration which do not produce voltage fluctuations during the entire experiment.
A rheostat is used for adjusting the magnitude of the current flowing through the entire circuit.
Also, a standard resistance ‘Rᾠof suitable value with sufficient current-carrying capacity is placed in series with the ammeter (which is under calibration) for getting a voltage parameter which relates to the current flowing in the circuit.
Now after the power is turned ON, a current ‘Iᾠflows through the entire circuit and with this current flow reading will be generated by the ammeter present in the loop.
Also, a voltage drop will take place across the standard resistance ‘Rᾠbecause of this current flow.
to calculate the current through the standard resistance.
That is the current I=V/R
Where
V=voltage across the standard resistor measured by the potentiometer,
And R=resistance of a standard resistor.
Since we are using the standard resistor, the resistance will be accurately known and the voltage across the standard resistor is measured by the potentiometer.
The calculated value will be the accurate value of the current flowing through the loop.
Then compare this calculated value with ammeter reading to check the accuracy of the ammeter.
If there are any errors, we can make necessary adjustments for the ammeter to rectify the errors.
Calibration of Wattmeter using Potentiometer
As mentioned above for an accurate calibration process, we will use two suitable stable DC voltage power supplies as sources.
Usually, low voltage supply is connected in series with the current coil of a wattmeter and a moderate voltage supply is connected to the potential coil of the wattmeter.
A rheostat in the top circuit is used for adjusting the magnitude of the current flowing through current coil and trim pot in the bottom circuit is used for adjusting the voltage across the potential coil.
Do remember that a trim pot is preferred for adjusting the voltage and rheostat is preferred for adjusting the current in a circuit.
Also, a standard resistance ‘Rᾠof suitable value and sufficient current-carrying capacity is placed in series with the current coil of the wattmeter.
And this standard resistance will generate a voltage drop across it when current flows in the current coil circuit.
to calculate the current through the standard resistance.
Since the current coil is in series with the standard resistance the calculated value also represents the current going through the current coil.
In a similar way, use the potentiometer second time to measure the voltage across the potential coil of the wattmeter.
Now that we have measured the current through current coil and voltage across the potential coil using a potentiometer, we can calculate the power as
Power P = Voltage reading x Current value.
After calculating we can compare this calculated value with wattmeter reading to check for errors.
Once the errors are found, make necessary adjustments to the wattmeter to adjust the errors.
This is how a potentiometer can be used to calibrate Voltmeter, Ammeter, and wattmeter to get accurate readings.
tutorial/true-rms-to-dc-converter-using-ad736-ic
Designing a True RMS to DC Converter using IC AD736
, how it works and how measurement methods can affect displayed results.
What is RMS?
, the RMS value is equivalent to a DC voltage that puts the same amount of power into a resistor.
True RMS IC AD736
The IC AD736 has few functional subsections like the input amplifier, full-wave rectifier (FWR), RMS core, output amplifier, and bias section.
The Input amplifier is constructed with MOSFETs, so it is responsible for the high impedance of this IC.
which is responsible for driving the RMS core.
The essential RMS operations of squaring, averaging, and square rooting are performed in the core with the help of an external averaging capacitor CAV.
Please note that without CAV, the rectified input signal travels through the core unprocessed.
to be performed via the external capacitor CF, which is connected across the feedback path of the amplifier.
The features of the IC is listed below
High input impedance: 10^12
Low input bias current: 25 pA maximum
High accuracy: ±0.3 mV ± 0.3% of reading
RMS conversion with signal crest factors up to 5
Wide power supply range: +2.8 V, 3.2 V to ±16.5 V
Low power: 200 μA maximum supply current
Buffered voltage output
No external trims needed for specified accuracy
and modified according to needs.
True RMS to DC Measurements Methods
There are mainly three methods available which DVM’s use to measure AC, they are-
True-RMS Measurement
Average Rectified Measurement
True-RMS AC+DC Measurement
True-RMS is a pretty common and popular method to measure dynamic signals of all shapes and sizes.
In a True-RMS multimeter, the multimeter calculates the RMS value of the input signal and shows the result.
This is why it's a very accurate compare to an average rectified measurement method.
multimeter.
method.
If you were to measure a PWM signal with a True-RMS multimeter, you will read the wrong value.
Let’s understand this method with some formulas and video, find the video at the end of this tutorial.
Calculation for True RMS converter
is described as
If we do the calculus byConsidering
V(t) = Vm Sin(wt) 0<t<T/2
This boils down to
Vm / (2)1/2
is described as
If we do the calculus byConsidering
V(t) = Vm Sin(wt) 0<t<T/2
This boils down to
2Vm /
Example Calculation True RMS to DC converter
If we consider the peak to peak voltage of 1V and put it in the formula to calculate RMS voltage which is,
VRMS = Vm/↲ = 1/↲ = .707V
Now considering a peak to peak voltage of 1V and putting it in the formula to calculate average voltage which is,
VAVE = 2VM/π = 2*1/π = 2/π = 0.637V
Now we have a peak to peak pure AC sine wave of 5V and we are directly feeding it to a DVM which has true RMS capabilities, for that the calculation would be,
VRMS = Vm/↲ = 5/↲ = 3.535V
Now we have a peak to peak pure AC sine wave of 5V, and we are directly feeding it to a DVM which is an average rectified DVM, for that the calculation would be,
VAVE = 2VM/π = 2*5/π = 10/π = 3.183V
factor to compensate for the error.
So it becomes,
VAVE = 3.183*1.11 = 3.535V
So, from the above formulas and examples, we can prove that how a non-true RMS multimeter calculates AC voltage.
But this value is only accurate for pure sine waveform.
So we can see that we need a true RMS DVM’s to properly measure a non-sinusoidal waveform.
Otherwise, we will get an error.
Things to Keep in Mind
Before doing the calculations for the practical application, some facts need to be known to understand the accuracy while measuring RMS voltages with the help of the AD736 IC.
of the AD736 tells about the two most important factors that should be taken into account to calculate the percentage of error that this IC will produce while measuring RMS value, they are.
Frequency Response
Crest Factor
but the lower the amplitude you measure in the input of your converter IC, the frequency response drops, and in the lower measurement ranges at around 1mv, it suddenly drops a few kHz.
The datasheet gives us some figures about this topic which you can see below
The limit for accurate measurement is 1%
So, we can clearly see that if the input voltage is 1mv and the frequency is 1 kHz, it already reaches the 1% additional error mark.
I assume now you can understand the rest values.
In simple terms, the crest factor is the ratio of the Peak value divided by the RMS value.
Crest-Factor = VPK/VRMS
VRMS = 10V
VPK= VRMS * √2 = 10*1.414 = 14.14
Now the Crest Factor = 14.14/ 10 = 1.41 (For pure Sine Wave)
The table below from the datasheet tells us that if the calculated crest factor is between 1 to 3, we can expect an additional error of 0.7% else we have to consider 2.5% of additional error which is true for a PWM signal.
Schematic for true RMS converter using IC AD736
The below schematic for the RMS converter is taken from the datasheet and modified according to our needs.
Components Required
1
AD736
IC
1
2
100K
Resistor
2
3
10uF
Capacitor
2
4
100uF
Capacitor
2
5
33uF
Capacitor
1
6
9V
Battery
1
7
Single Gauge Wire
Generic
8
8
Transformer
0 - 4.5V
1
9
Arduino Nano
Generic
1
10
Breadboard
Generic
1
True RMS to DC converter- Practical Calculations & Testing
For the demonstration, the following apparatus is used
Meco 108B+TRMS Multimeter
Meco 450B+TRMS Multimeter
Hantek 6022BE Oscilloscope
to attenuate the input signal of the AD736 IC that is because the full-scale input voltage of this IC is 200mV MAX.
Now that we have clear some basic facts about the circuit let us begin the calculations for the practical circuit.
RMS Calculations for 50Hz AC Sine Wave
Input Voltage of the Transformer
Now the input and the output of the circuit can be clearly seen.
, the Meco 108B+TRMS multimeter is showing the input voltage.
That is the output of the voltage divider circuit.
, the Meco 450B+TRMS multimeter is showing the output voltage.
That is the output voltage from the AD736 IC.
Now you can see that the above theoretical calculation and both the multimeter results are close, so for a pure sine wave, it confirms the theory.
The measurement error in both the multimeter results is due to their tolerance and for demonstration, I am using the mains 230V AC input, which changes very rapidly with time.
If you have any doubts, you can zoom in on the image and see that the Meco 108B+TRMS multimeter is in AC mode and the Meco 450B+TRMS multimeter is in DC mode.
At this point, I did not bother to use my hantek 6022BL oscilloscope because the oscilloscope is pretty much useless and only shows noise at these low voltage levels.
Calculations for PWM Signal
and the frequency is almost 1 kHz.
Input Voltage on the Arduino board
so the calculation becomes
VRMS = Vm/↲ = 0.02141/↲ = 0.01514V or 15.14mV
will easily be able to calculate this theoretically calculated value right?
The transformer in the image is sitting there and doing nothing.
With that, you can see I am a very lazy person.
So, what is the problem?
Before anybody jumps and says we have done the calculations wrong, let me tell you we have done the calculations right, and the problem is in the multimeters.
is simply taking the average of the input signal which we can calculate.
and to get the average voltage, it simply multiplies the value by 0.5.
So the calculation becomes,
VAVE = 0.02141 * 0.5 = 0.010705V Or 10.70mV
And that is what we are getting in the multimeter display.
the input capacitor of the multimeter is blocking the DC components of the input signal, so the calculation becomes pretty much the same.
is a multimeter with True RMS AC+DC capabilities.
is a kind of IC that is used to measure these types of input signals accurately.
The below image is proof of the theory.
IC.
So,
Vout = 15.14 + 0.10598 = 15.2459mV
Vout = 15.14 - 0.10598 = 15.0340mV
So the value displayed by Meco 450B+ multimeter is clearly within the 0.7% error range
Arduino Code for PWM generation
I almost forgot to mention that I have used this Arduino code to generate the PWM signal with 50% duty cycle.
int OUT_PIN = 2; // square wave out with 50% duty cycle
void setup()
{
pinMode(OUT_PIN, OUTPUT);// defining the pin as output
}
void loop()
{
/*
* if we convert 500 Microseconds to seconds we will get 0.0005S
* now if we put it in the formula F= 1/T
* we will get F = 1/0.0005 = 2000
* the pin is on for 500 uS and off for 500 us so the
* frequency becomes F = 2000/2 = 1000Hz or 1Khz*
*/
digitalWrite(OUT_PIN, HIGH);
delayMicroseconds(500);
digitalWrite(OUT_PIN, LOW);
delayMicroseconds(500);
}
Precautions
AD736 True RMS to DC converter IC is by far the most expensive 8-PIN PDIP IC that I have worked with.
After completely destroying one with ESD, I took proper precautions and strapped myself to ground.
Circuit Enhancements
in order to work properly.
Applications of True RMS to DC converter
It is used in
High precision Voltmeters and multimeters.
High precision non-sinusoidal voltage measurement.
for detailed discussion.
A detailed video showing the complete calculation process is given below.
case-studies/importance-of-measuring-rated-rpm-before-replacing-old-motors-with-new-one
Importance of Measuring Rated RPM Manually before Replacing Old Motors with a New One
, to read about the different problems that we face in the industry and how we solve it.
for trial, the fan was made to run for 1 hour in 40 - 50% load conditions and everything was normal, then the speed of the fan was taken to be 50%.
and motor.
It was assumed that the vibration was coming from fan to motor so the mechanical team checked the fan, bearing, and damper and found it normal.
The motor was checked again in a decoupled condition and everything was found to be normal.
We then assumed VFD could be the reason as new VFD was installed during the same time for speed control.
But, VFD too was found to be normal.
vibration level too started increasing.
Then, the new motor was again replaced and the original motor was placed and surprisingly everything was normal in both decoupled and coupled conditions.
There were no vibrations, and no overloading and the fan was running smoothly too.
In majority cases, we tend to believe that the RPM written on the nameplate is right and doesn’t even doubt that such a problem could occur, and such cases can pose serious risks to the operator and equipment in which the motor is driving.
Imagine the scenario if instead of a fan, it was some gearbox.
The entire gearbox could have been damaged.
with the help of a tachometer/RPM.
About the Author
is an Electrical Engineer with over 11 years of rich experience in Electrical Maintenance, Installation, Testing, and Commissioning of all major electrical equipment.
He is specialized in bringing down Energy Cost of a Plant by reducing electricity bills and increasing energy efficiency.
He also reduces plant breakdown costs by implementing proper maintenance activities during routine and shutdown.
Through these Case Studies, he shares his experience and challenges faced in his work routine with the readers of Circuit Digest.
article/ingestible-electronic-pills-for-real-time-analysis-of-gastro-intestinal-tract
An Overview of Ingestible Electronic Pills for Real-Time Analysis of Gastro-Intestinal Tract
Now, the question that comes to our mind is, what are edible electronics and why would we want to ingest electronics? Read on to get the answer to these questions.
is here to stay and top the chart.
Bridging the gap between engineering and medicine, electronic pill technology has come a far way.
It has witnessed a lot of changes but the researchers around the world are still coming up with highly advanced solutions to change the way doctors diagnose and treat various medical conditions of the patients.
Our body is quite a sensitive system and determining what is happening in the stomach and intestines of a human being is one of the main challenges that doctors are facing.
No doubt endoscopic instruments are helping them inspect the colon and examine the stomach of the patients.
However, with this age-old method, it is not possible to easily view some areas of the stomach and intestines, and sometimes doctors are unable to detect the underlying problem.
Electronic Pill is helping doctors and patients alike.
With these technology-driven pills, doctors can get real-time data for a quicker and accurate diagnosis.
Patients too are heaving a sigh of relief with these pills as the pills have reduced the number of unnecessary procedures and are far more comfortable monitoring methods.
What is an Electronic Pill?
Electronic Pill is a tiny capsule-sized electronic device that with the help of various components encapsulated in a small pill helps doctors in investigating several stomach-related diseases, bowel injuries, unexplained bleeding, malabsorption disorders, ulcers, tumors of the small intestine and inflammatory bowel diseases, etc.
with an ingestible sensor that begins transmitting the medical data when it is consumed by the patients.
These swallowable pills can withstand the harsh acidic environment of the gut and can help doctors in temperature analysis, pH measurements, and collecting pressure data too.
which means these can transmit raw video data without compressing thereby resulting in low-power, less delay in real-time and increased picture resolution.
As a painless alternative to catheters, endoscopy, colonoscopy, and radioisotopes for collecting information about the digestive tract of a person, an electronic pill ensures to make the lives of patients comfortable.
Electronic Pills ᾠHow it all started to where we are today
The emergence of swallowable electronics dates back to 1957 when Mackay invented the first radio-telemetry capsule with one transistor.
The first electronic pill was developed by Dr.
John Cooper and Dr.
Eric Johannessen from Glasgow University (UK)in 1972.
Since then, many research and developments have been carried out.
(aripiprazole tablet) manufactured by Otsuka Pharmaceutical was the first digital pill that was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in November 2017.
In January 2016, Barton Health became the first institution to commercially offer electronic pills to treat patients with chronic medical conditions and in the same year, Children's Health in Dallas, Texas commercially used electronic pills with pediatric patients.
is dominated by North America and Europe owing to the rising prevalence of gastrointestinal (GI) disorders and the rapidly growing health sector.
Technologically advanced systems for early diagnosis of gastrointestinal disorders have remarkably influenced these regions.
Also, EnteraSense is an early-stage startup based in Galway, Ireland that develops electronic pills to help doctors monitor upper gastrointestinal problems.
What is inside an Electronic Pill?
Electronic pills comprise of various components/parts such as control chip, silver oxide cells, radio transmitter, and sensors.
These components are combined and arranged in a compact easy-to-swallow pill-shaped capsule that can be passed through the gastrointestinal tract.
are pH ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET) (for measuring ion concentration in solutions), temperature sensor (to identify the body temperature), dual-electrode conductivity sensor to measure conductivity and a three-electrode electrochemical oxygen sensor to calculate the rate of dissolved oxygen and identify the activity of aerobic bacteria in the small and large intestines.
All these sensors are controlled by an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) and the other components of the electronic pill are connected to ASIC consisting of analog signal conditioning.
Types of Electronic pills
Based on the functions like imaging, sensing different types of gasses, monitoring medication compliance and sensing electrochemical signal; different types of electronic pills are:
Imaging Pills: These pills contain video cameras and are used for generating images of the macroscopic structures of organs like the stomach and small bowel.
Medication Monitoring Pills: Used for monitoring the absorption of medication or compliance sends the signal that the user needs to take the medicine.
These are activated in the stomach by pH differences and transmit via Bluetooth.
Gas Sensing Pills: Used to detect the partial-pressures of different gasses produced as the byproduct of metabolic reactions by bacteria in the intestines.
Electrochemical Sensing Pills: Used in performing cyclic, square wave, and differential pulse voltammetry.
Voltammetry is used in vitro on stool liquid as a Gi tract diagnostic tool.
How does Electronic Pill work?
When a person swallows the electronic pill, it takes images as it is propelled forward by peristalsis.
When the pill moves through the gastrointestinal tract, it starts detecting diseases and abnormalities.
The pill can easily reach the small intestine and large intestine and can deliver real-time information that gets displayed on the monitor.
The electronic pill travels to the digestive system, collects data and sends it into the computer with a distance of 1 meter or more.
Where does the electronic pill go?
One important question that might be hovering over your mind while reading about the electronic pills is that where does the pill go once it has been ingested, does it remain inside the patient’s body?
As the electronic pill travels through the gastrointestinal tract, it collects information such as acidity, pressure and temperature levels or images of the esophagus and intestines which are used by the doctor for analysis.
Thereafter, it pushes down and reaches the colon and eventually comes out of the body through bowel movement in a day or two.
Advantages and Conclusion
The electronic pills are bringing about a great change in the healthcare sector and have many benefits over traditional medical options.
Firstly, the pill is quite small in size so, it is easy for the patients to swallow.
Moreover, it has low power consumption.
The major drawback of this swallowable electronic pill is that it is very expensive and not available in all countries.
Also, it cannot detect radiation abnormalities.
Having said that, we certain people might argue about the ethical concerns and side effects but one thing that we are sure of is that these little magical electronic pills are here to stay.
They have successfully merged the diagnostics and treatment, and such innovative technologies like ‘Electronic Pillsᾠare creating a great impact on the lives of people and ensuring to provide utmost comfort to the patients and bring a revolution in the healthcare industry.
article/do-you-have-a-temperature-control-strategy-for-electrical-enclosures
Do You Have A Temperature Control Strategy for Electrical Enclosures?
In commercial and industrial environments, it’s essential to house electrical devices in a secure enclosure.
Such devices include controls such as power supplies, terminals, relays, fuses, and many others.
is to prevent airborne particles such as debris or dirt as well as liquids from negatively impacting these devices.
On the other side, many of these devices run on extremely high-voltage, and that makes it imperative to keep valued employees out of harm’s way.
is vital.
Excess heat or cold temperatures can impede proper function or damage these often-expensive pieces of equipment.
That’s why maintaining strict temperature controls in these electrical enclosures ranks among the top priorities in cost-effective machinery management.
What You Need To Know About Heat Transfer
As the temperature in given facility shifts throughout the day increased heating or cooling must be brought to bear.
This ensures the enclosure remains within a standard range that underscores safe operation.
It’s important to keep in mind that fluctuation outside best practices can result in condensation build-ups, freezing, or overheating.
Given that the vast majority of electrical components work seamlessly at reduced temperatures, the following heat-transfer factors are worth considering.
Conduction: This type of transfer occurs when heat flows through the enclosure wall or other hard materials.
Convection: Heat can also utilize traveling gases or fluids to transfer to the surface of hard material.
Radiation: This thermal energy transfer uses electrical currents, most notably a strip heater.
forming inside the enclosure and reduce overheating or freezing of the electrical devices.
When managing the warmth of an electrical enclosure, all three of these factors may be present.
Some may be beyond your control, which is why improved temperature oversight remains a necessity.
Enclosure Cooling Methods to Consider
demonstrates that decision-makers cannot rely on controlled exterior temperatures or those within the enclosure to remain static.
Increased or decreased use of the housed devices can cause unexpected spikes, particularly when external transfers are at play.
Humid conditions can also present adversity when trying to optimize conditions.
All of these moving parts present a challenge that requires a proactive system that moves and disperses heat and humidity efficiently.
Industry leaders commonly employ the following strategies to achieve consistently optimal temperatures.
, convection remains the primary method used to control modest electrical enclosure temperatures.
The greater the air and movement within the enclosure, the better the heat transfers.
can be utilized to allow hot air to expel itself from the top of the electrical enclosure.
Additional vents may be prudent to allow for full air circulation
Commercial fans are generally rated to exhaust hot air and can be automated to provide heat transfer regulation.
As a more proactive approach to heat removal, forced convection can create a steady airflow that delivers enhanced protection against equipment overheating.
Fresh air can even be moved into the enclosure, and it’s not uncommon to employ filters to minimize moisture and dust.
tend to be the most secure ways to regulate temperatures.
They do not necessarily rely on convection because they seize control of the internal environment and adjust it automatically.
These are common reasons decision-makers create closed-loop cooling systems.
High Ambient Heat Transfers
Electrical Equipment Generates Extreme Heat
Uneven Environmental Conditions
Dust, Debris, Liquids Present
Airborne Chemicals
Many of the industry-standard closed systems enjoy a protection rating.
These commonly include air conditioning units and heat exchangers, among others.
Air conditioning units tend to be more highly sought after in this capacity because of their enhanced ability to reduce heat exposures.
and far outpace convection methods in terms of environmental oversight.
But before deciding on which method to move forward with, consider some due diligence.
Electrical Enclosure Temperature Control Checklist
When deciding how best to implement a temperature control system, considers assessing the process in place and review the data garnered from the following items.
It’s always in your best interest to make an informed decision about temperature regulation given safety and cost.
Heat Load: Determine the overall heat load based on the watts used by the equipment in the enclosure.
It may also be assessed by power usage and efficiency.
Max Temps: Consider the maximum heat the equipment can efficiently function at and choose an enclosure and system accordingly.
Ambient Temperatures: Conduct an assessment of regional climate and heat throws within the facility to arrive at the expected ambient temperatures.
Keep in mind that low temps can create condensation.
Do the Math on Capacity: Work with a trained professional to arrive at a target temperature and consider which system to employ.
Enclosure Specifics: Take into consideration the type of enclosure that will be used and how that impacts heat transfers, dust, debris, condensation, and other factors.
Select A Method: With all of these factors in place, work with an industry professional to determine the general method and details necessary to your unique facility.
These may include fans, vents, air conditioning units, and niche products.
At the end of the day, industry leaders are wise to bring work with experienced professionals when crafting the temperature control guidelines of electrical enclosures.
There are serious safety implications to consider as well as possible disruption if a system is inadequate.
article/tips-and-tools-to-reduce-time-to-market-for-electronics-hardware-products
Tips and Tools to Reduce Time to Market for your Electronic Hardware Products
Developing a new hardware product is no doubt a herculean task filled with uncertainties which if not properly managed, could increase the project’s lead time, delay the launch, and cost the company tons of money.
from John Teel.
Due to differences in the type of products and their requirements, there is no one-size-fits-all approach to mitigate the risks posed by uncertainties, but some pretty standard wisdom exist and can be deployed to ensure most of the eventualities on the product development road, are well planned for.
To make it easy to follow; we will be evaluating them under four main subheadings.
User Research
Mitigating Risks During Design and Engineering
Manufacturing and Establishing Relationships
Certifications
User Research
to market, it is imperative that you consult with potential users extensively and understand all the basic features required.
It is important to note that the “usersᾠat this point include; regulators, potential sales channels, etc., not just your potential end-users.
The first version of your product, may not have “killerᾬ and awesome features, but it must come with features that make it acceptable to people in the target category, as missing out on any of those, before the product development starts, could lead to the need for avoidable changes as things proceed.
and can make strategic and informed decisions while designing the product.
Mitigating Risks During Design and Engineering
Second, to only Manufacturing, more time is wasted during design than any other stage of the product dev process.
There are different problems and tips tied to this section and I will take them one after the other (in no specific order) to make it easy to follow.
Before selecting components to use, run a predesign of your project to identify what the requirements and key components are.
Draw up selection criteria (e.g.
cost, Low-Power, IOs, etc.) for key components based on your product requirements.
Certain component manufacturers maintain applications on their website that recommend microcontrollers, ICs, sensors, etc.
based on criteria provided by users, use them.
You can also check the below articles to get some insights into the selection process.
How to select a Microcontroller for Embedded Applications How to select the right PCB Design SoftwareHow to select an IoT Platform for your devicesSelecting between Microcontroller and Microprocessor
From microcontrollers to regular ICs and Sensors, component manufacturers provide reference designs including schematics, source codes (where applicable), and sample application/use case.
All of this could reduce the time it takes to figure out where each component should go and how it should be used.
of the components needed to produce them on a large scale.
For a startup without a lot of money or time, you can’t afford to do this because as the project moves closer to manufacturing, the errors pop out and the need to switch components A or make changes to B could lead to delays in the product launch.
To mitigate these risks, Startups and Individuals can;
Prototype using evaluation kits and breakouts boards of the major components that will be used in mass production.
Use components with a large ecosystem of potential replacements
Understand the capacity of your proposed manufacturers, and the specifications they work with.
Circuit-tree allows you to create Schematics and PCBs by just entering your project specification and selecting the components you like to be used.
The tool is still under development but it could be very useful to teams with founders looking to cut down on cost and time for their electronics design.
Manufacturing and Related Relationships
for the key components you will be using and also identify potential manufacturers, who should have experience with similar products.
By identifying these manufacturers early and having casual discussions(protect your IP) with them about the products they make, you would gain a lot of insights on how your product could be designed and also get information on the specifications of their machines and other equipment, so your designs can be aligned to them.
that these discussions start early.
Countless examples of manufacturing hold-ups due to a shortage of certain components abound.
There are also scenarios where designs are done with certain components, only for them to be discontinued by the manufacturers a few weeks/months to manufacturing, staring up the scarcity and driving up the cost.
To mitigate these risks and keep your product development plans on track, startups and individuals could;
Ensure there is someone on the team with experience around manufacturing a similar product.
This could be a core member of the team or a consultant.
Establish relationships (casual, if you like) with potential manufacturers early.
Bring on a supply chain expert.
Inhouse or consultant.
For first-time hardware founders, talk to as many people in that space as possible.
By leveraging on their experience, you will most likely save yourself thousands of dollars in time and mistakes.
Certification
Doing this will not only reduce the chances of failing the tests, but also reduce the time, money, and complex design efforts that would have gone into designing those modules and ensuring they meet the standards.
In conclusion, while it’s almost impossible to totally avoid challenges that could affect your product timeline, a number of steps could be taken to reduce the risks.
The suggestions provided in this article are not final and could vary from product to product.
article/understanding-z-wave-protocol-and-its-role-in-home-automation
Understanding Z-Wave Protocol and its Role in Smart Home Automation Solutions
For today’s article, we will examine the technicalities of Z-wave, it’s differentiating features, the Standard, and much more.
What is Z-Wave
of small data packets using low-energy radio waves at data rates up to 100kbit/s with a throughput of up to 40kbit/s (9.6kbit/s using old chips) and are suitable for control and sensor applications.
, with the additional ability of messages to Hop up between up to 4 nodes.
All of these features make it a suitable communication protocol for home automation applications like lighting control, thermostats, windows controls, locks, garage door openers, and many more while avoiding the problematic congestions associated with Wi-Fi and Bluetooth due to their use of the 2.4GHz and 5GHz bands.
How does Z-Wave Protocol Work?
let's analysis the subject in three main sections namely the Z-Wave System Architecture, Data Transmission/Reception, and Routing and Connecting to the Internet
Every Z-wave network comprises of two broad categories of devices;
Controller/Master(s)
Slaves
is unique on every network (for every HomeID), as such, it is used to address and primarily recognize each device on a particular network.
ᾠis performed.
During exclusion, the Home ID and the Node ID are deleted from the device.
The device is reset to the factory default state (controllers have their own Home ID and slaves have no Home ID).
The HomeID and NodeID mentioned above are the two identification systems defined by the Z-wave protocol for easy organization of the Z-wave network.
The HomeID is the common identification of all nodes that are part of a particular Z-Wave network, while the NodeID is the address of individual nodes within a network.
The HomeIDs are usually Pre-Programmed and unique, and they define the particular Z-wave network.
They come in a length of 32 bits which means it’s possible to create up to 4 billion (2^32) different HomeIDs and different Z-wave networks.
The Node ID, on the other hand, is just a byte(8 bits) in length which means we could have up to 256(2^8) nodes in a network.
charter from Network A being received by B.
, and the ability of Z-wave nodes to forward and repeat messages to other nodes.
This ensures that communication can be made to every node in a network even when they are not in the direct range of the controller.
To better understand this, consider the Image below;
The Z-wave network illustration shows the controller can communicate directly with the devices 1, 2, and 4, while Node 6 is outside its radio range.
However, due to the features described earlier, Node 2 will assume a repeater/forwarder status and extend the range of the controller to Node 6 such that any message heading to Node 6 will be passed through Node 2.
Nodes like Node 2 in large networks are called routes and they contribute to the flexibility and robustness of Z-wave Networks.
To determine which of the routes messages should travel to reach a particular Node, Z-wave networks use a tool called a routing table.
Every node in a Z-wave network is able to determine the other nodes (called Neighbors) in its direct wireless coverage area and during Inclusion or later, the node informs the controller about these neighbors.
Using the list of neighbors from each Node, the controller creates a routing table that is used to map routes to Nodes that are outside of the controller’s direct wireless range.
It is important to note that not all Nodes can be configured as forwarders.
The Z-wave protocol only allows Nodes that are Plugged-in (not battery powered) to serve as “Routing Nodesᾮ
Z-Wave Gateway.
Z-Wave Alliance
While the first Z-wave based devices were released as early as 1999, the technology did not really catch-on until 2005 when a group of companies including Home automation giant Leviton, Danfoss, and Ingersoll-Rand adopted Z-Wave and formed an alliance called the Z-Wave Alliance.
The Alliance was formed to promote the use and interoperability of Z-Wave technology and devices based on it.
In line with this, the alliance develops and maintains the Z-wave standard, and certifies all Z-Wave based devices to ensure they comply with the standard.
The alliance started with 5 member companies but now has over 600 companies producing more than 2600 Z-Wave certified devices.
Difference between Z-Wave and Other Protocols
To understand why it makes sense to have another communication protocol like Z-wave, we will compare it with some other communications protocols used in home automation including; Bluetooth, WiFi, and Zigbee
than Bluetooth.
Also, Bluetooth signals are prone to interference and interruption because they send and receive information on the 2.4GHz band, thereby competing for Bandwidth with WiFi-based Devices using the same frequency band.
With Z-wave, rather than make the network slower or noisy, every Z-wave signal repeater works together to make the network stronger, such that, the more devices you have, the easier it is to create a robust network, capable of bypassing obstacles.
Like Bluetooth, WiFi-based networks are also susceptible to interference, interruption and range related issues and as such perform below Z-wave based networks under those circumstances.
in homes where lots of devices are based on WiFi.
This is not the case with Z-wave as the network flourishes with the addition of more devices to the Network.
WiFi-based devices, however, have an upside in comparison with Z-waves.
They are able to send larger information like HD video Streams and more, while Z-wave based networks are able to handle small bytes of data like sensor data or instructions to turn on/off a light bulb.
Zigbee is another wireless technology and like Z-wave, it was designed with Home Automation and nearby wireless sensor networks in mind.
Like Z-wave, it is based which is on the Mesh network topology and each device on a Zigbee network helps strengthen the signal.
However, unlike Z-wave, it operates on the 2.4GHz frequency band which means it also competes for bandwidth with WiFi and Bluetooth and may also be prone to the interference and network speed challenges associated with them.
Another difference whose significance I will leave you to decide is the fact that, while Z-Wave is a proprietary technology (although there are plans to make the software open source), Zigbee is open-source.
Z-Wave Advantages and Disadvantages
Like all things, Z-Wave has both advantages and disadvantages.
We will discuss them one after the other.
Pros of Z-Wave
include;
The ability to support 232 devices in theory and at least 50 in practice.
Signals can travel up to 50 feet indoors allowing for obstructions and up to 100 feet unobstructed.
This reach is extended considerably outdoors.
With the four hops between devices further enhancing the range, coverage won’t be a problem in sprawling connected homes.
The Z-wave alliance is made up of up to 600 manufacturers producing over 2600 certified devices to ensure compatibility.
Less interference due to the ISM band being used.
Less dead spots compared to other networks, thanks to the robust mesh topology
It is Affordable and easy to use.
Cons Z-Wave
Unlike some of the other communication protocols, Z-Waves was specifically designed for use in Home Automation applications, as such, it was tailored to the application needs and bear very little disadvantages.
However, the workable limits of 50 devices rather than the notional 232, can be a challenge in homes where more than 50 devices need to be deployed.
Also, its inability to sustain the transfer of large bytes of data makes it not so useful in applications like video surveillance, where megabytes of data need to be streamed between end devices.
Conclusion
is to the broader IoT landscape.
The biggest advantage it has over all the other protocols in the Home Automation niche is the fact that it was designed for that niche.
This means it will generally perform better than other protocols that were designed for broader consumption, and it will perform relatively well for, at least, 80% of the applications in that niche.
interview/mahek-mahendra-shah-on-how-his-nb-iot-smart-garbage-bins-can-tackle-waste-management-problems
Mahek Mahendra Shah, CEO of Antariksh Waste Ventures on how his NB-IoT Smart Garbage Bins can tackle Waste Management Problems
are gaining more attention than ever.
With the aim to clear every bin before it overflows by digitizing waste management processes, Antariksh Waste Ventures came up with AirBins.
Mahek Mahendra Shah, the director of Antariksh Waste Ventures is a B Tech (Mech) from IIT Madras and MBA (Energy & Design Management) Politecnico Di Milano degree holder.
He is the founder of SwachhBharatApp.com.
Besides, he has served as a Vice-President in the IIT Madras Alumni Association.
To know more about him and hisIoT-powered smart garbage bins, and the technology behind it, we asked Mahek a few questions.
Scroll down to read on what he has to say about the smart AirBins and future plans of the company.
By analysis of citizen grievances, we realized that around 70% of them were related to the garbage not being collected or cleared or related to waste management eco-system.
Garbage Vulnerable Points (GVP) are on the rise across the country due to increasing urbanization and lackluster investment in waste management collection and recycling processes.
Our company, ‘Antariksh Waste Venturesᾠaims at improving the waste collection process and clearing every bin before it overflows.
Also, we aim to help to increase the waste recycling % by implementing technology in the waste eco-system supply chain.
We presented our rough ideas to Incubation Cell in Aug-Sep 2017 and also did ground research in Warangal, Chennai and Hyderabad Municipalities.
We were incubated in Jan 2018 and received grant support after which we formed the initial team to kick off.
and we are working on improving this further.
Moreover, the system is integrated with rechargeable batteries.
The features that we have in the pipeline for all stakeholders of waste management eco-system are:
Sanitation Workers: Knowing fill statuses, skill development program on waste segregation, attendance monitoring system.
Citizen: Getting pickup alerts, a list of nearby bins, better understanding local sanitation teams, promotional waste segregation, disposal, and recycling information.
Sanitation Supervisors: Automated alerts on bin levels and workers statuses, equipment management, planning and disbursal to sanitation workers, etc.
City Administrators: City / Ward wide reports on the status and smart city analytics
to smart city and municipal teams over a period of time.
Let me explain this with the help of some examples.
The system automatically generates a count of pickups (by contractors) on a daily/weekly basis for cross-checking with waste management contractors.
In general, a city municipality can penalize a contractor for missing pickups.
The system can suggest the best routes for contractors (based on fill levels).
This will move away from the route model of going unnecessarily to empty bins to most filled bins first.
After some time, the system will be able to suggest which area and what size of bin is appropriate, pickup should happen at what time, which micro-recycling industry can be set up in this ward/area, etc.
Equipment of sanitation workers is locked with expiry periods to urge sanitation supervisors and admins to replenish them (gloves and other safety equipment) periodically.
Artificial intelligence plays a major role in waste management as I have discussed above.
Other than these features, there are 20 other types of metrics based on bin, area, locality, usage, routes, etc.
For us, the Chennai Pilot (Valmiki Nagar) was a very good experience in refining our system.
Our bin systems are inherently non-intrusive.
For local citizens, sanitation workers or supervisors, daily operations and user experience don’t change drastically.
Our team didn’t face many technical problems as such.
Yes, field testing in Chennai's temperature and getting quality engineering/civil work was a bigger challenge on the field.
from LoRa technology stack.
Currently, five smart bins have been deployed in Chennai.
are being offered by Vodafone already (other vendors also will be offering soon we believe).
Mobile coverage penetration in India is already very good, hence NB IoT based products are readilyscalable.
We source components from multiple vendors.
During the prototype development phase, Aggarwal Electronics (Gujarati Galli, Hyderabad) was our go-to shop.
They would help us procure items in time and regularly recommended component alternatives from their sales experience! We currently source from BG Tronics (Hyderabad), Aggarwal Electronics (Hyderabad), Digikey, Wurth Electronics, Robu.in, Aliexpress, PCB power (Ahmedabad), JLC Power, etc.
We take multiple professional engineering services like Pipe bending, drilling, powder coating, painting, welding, multiple civil works for the installation of supports and place-making markers, 3D Printing, PCB fabrication, and fast soldering assembly teams.
We largely work with multiple workshops in Alandur (Chennai) for the above services.
It is one of the best local hubs for procuring engineering services within Chennai.
In our country, the total amount of waste generated in 2016 was 62 Million Tonnes (only 28% of waste generated was recycled in 2016) and this number is expected to reach 435 million tonnes by 2050.
Every country will be moving towards 100% recycling and treatment in the future.
first.
We plan to deploy AirBins in 99 Smart Cities (India) + municipal corporations across the world.Almost every municipality and smart city team we have approached require better waste monitoring systems due to an increase in urbanization and real-time service pressure from social media generation.
Our team includes Mechanical, Hardware, Software engineers along with Product and User experience designers (16 along including winter interns (7 full time)!) Prof Boby George & Prof.
Palaniappam Ramu (IIT Madras) & Dr.
Rajan Srikanth (Keiretsu Forum) are our mentors.
In August-September 2018, we proposed the idea to Incubation Cell (IIT Madras).
In January 2018, we Incubated in IIT Madras Incubation Cell.
We received a grant in April 2018 and in May 2018, we hired the first full-time hardware engineer.
The prototype demonstration took place in 2018.
In Feb/Mar 2019 pilot bins were deployed in Valmiki Nagar.
We got supported by Rialto Group (Shri Chander Swamy Ji), Chennai Resilient Cities (CRO - Shri Krishna Mohan Ji) and ATOS India Pvt.
Ltd.
In June/Jul 2019, we were the Top 10 QDIC 2019 cohort.
In October 2019, all the pilot bins deployment was completed and we have implemented major learning in the current industrial product.The industrial product is ready now with 4 months+ battery life on a single charge.
Since inception, 35+ people have been part of our startup journey.
of India to support the nascent recycling industry and improve India’s recycling efficiency from 28% to 50%.
article/understanding-dot-convention-in-transformers
Understanding Dot Convention in Transformers
But what is it? And what purpose does it serve?
What is Dot Convention?
and it involves the placement of dots on top of the primary and secondary terminals as shown below.
, and the direction of the Secondary current (Is) and Primary current (Ip) will be the same.
However, if the dots are placed in reversed positions (e.g.
up on primary, down on secondary or vice versa), like the image below, It indicates that the primary and secondary current and voltages are 180° out of phase and the primary and secondary currents (IP and IS) will be in opposite in direction to one another.
With the knowledge of this convention and the polarity of the transformer, the engineers now have their destiny in their hands, and can decide to reverse the phase relationships in whichever way they want by changing which end of their circuit is connected to the transformer’s terminals.
For instance, for the out-of-phase transformer example above, by switching how the terminals are connected like the image below, the secondary side is made in-phase with the primary.
Why is Dot Convention Important?
The phase relation between primary and secondary currents and voltages depends on how each winding is wrapped around the core, hence if the winding is wrapped around the core in the same direction as shown below; then the voltage and current on both sides should be in phase.
However, this assumption is not always correct, as the direction of the windings could be opposite (as shown in the image above), which will mean if connection is to the same terminals, then the voltage in the secondary winding (VS) will be out-of-phase and the direction of the current (Is) is in opposite direction to the primary current.
, however trivial it sounds, creates serious problems in power system protection, measurement, and control systems.
As an example, reversing the polarity in an instrument transformer winding, for instance, may defeat protective relays, lead to inaccurate power and energy measurements, or result in the display of negative power factor during measurements.
It could also lead to an effective short circuit in parallel transformer windings, and in signal circuits, can lead to incorrect operation of amplifiers and speaker systems, or cancellation of signals that are meant to add.
ᾮ
Alphanumeric Labels in Transformers
which are typically made up of the “Hᾠand “Xᾠalong with subscript numbers which represent winding polarity.
The ᾱᾠwires (H1 and X1) represent where the polarity-marking dots would normally be placed.
A typical transformer with the alphanumeric label is shown below.
tutorial/relaxation-oscillator-using-op-amp
Relaxation Oscillator using Op-amp
using op-amp and other electronics components.
is the one which satisfies all the below conditions:
It must provide a non-sinusoidal waveform (of either voltage or current parameter) at the output.
It must provide a periodic signal or repetitive signal like Triangular, Square or Rectangular wave at the output.
The circuit of a relaxation oscillator must be a nonlinear one.
That means the design of the circuit must involve semiconductor devices like Transistor, MOSFET or OP-AMP.
The circuit design must also involve an energy storing device like aCapacitor or Inductor which charges and discharges continuously to produce a cycle.
The frequency or period of oscillation for such an oscillator depends on the time constant of their respective capacitive or inductive circuit.
Working of a Relaxation Oscillator
For a better understanding of the Relaxation Oscillator, let us first look into the working of a simple mechanism shown below.
So whichever objects has higher mass gets leveled to the ground while the lower mass object is lifted to air.
In this seesaw setup, we will have a fixed mass ‘Mᾠon one end and an empty bucket on the other end as shown in the figure.
At this initial state the mass ’Mᾠwill be leveled to the ground and the bucket will be hanged in the air based on seesaw principle discussed above.
Now, if turn on the tap placed above the empty bucket, then the water starts filling the empty bucket and thereby increasing the mass of the entire setup.
And once the bucket gets completely full, then the entire mass on the bucket side will be more than the fixed mass ’Mᾠplaced on the other end.
So the plank moves along the axis thereby airlifting the Mass ‘Mᾠand grounding the water bucket.
Once the bucket hits the ground, the water filled in the bucket gets spilled over completely to the ground as shown in the figure.
After the spillage, the total mass on the bucket side will again become less compared to the fixed mass ‘Mᾮ So again the plank moves along the axis, thereby shifting the bucket to the air again for another filling.
up until the water source is present to fill the bucket.
And because of this cycle, the plank moves along the axis with periodic intervals, thereby giving an oscillation output.
then we have.
The bucket can be considered as an energy-storing device which is either a capacitor or an inductor.
Seesaw is a comparator or an op-amp used for comparing the voltages of capacitor and reference.
Reference voltage is taken for nominal comparison of capacitor value.
The water flow here can be termed as an electric charge.
Relaxation Oscillator Circuit
can be explained as follows:
Once the tap is turned on, the water flows into a water bucket, thereby filling it slowly.
After the water bucket is completely filled, the entire mass on the bucket side will be more than the fixed mass ’Mᾠplaced on the other end.
Once this happens, the plank shifts its positions to a more compromising place.
After the water is completely spilled out, the total mass on the bucket side will again become less compared to the fixed mass ‘Mᾮ So the shaft will move again to its initial position.
Once again the bucket gets filled with water after the previous dispel and this cycle continues forever until there is water flowing from the tap.
If we draw the graph for the above case, it will look something like below:
Here,
Initially, if we consider the output of the comparator is high, then during this time the capacitor will be charging.
With the charging of the capacitor, its terminal voltage will gradually rise, which can be seen in the graph.
Once the capacitor terminal voltage reaches the threshold, the comparator output will go from high to low as shown in the graph.
And when the comparator output goes negative, the capacitor starts discharging to zero.
After the capacitor completely discharges because of the presence of a negative output voltage, it again charges except in the opposite direction.
As you can see in the graph because of the negative output voltage, the capacitor voltage also rises in a negative direction.
Once the capacitor charges to the maximum in a negative direction, the comparator switches output from negative to positive.
Once the output switches to a positive cycle, the capacitor discharges in the negative path and builds up charges in the positive path as shown in the graph.
So the cycle of capacitor charge and discharge in positive and negative paths trigger the comparator produces a square wave signal at the output which is shown above.
Frequency of Relaxation Oscillator
Obviously the frequency of oscillation depends on the time constant of C1 and R3 in the circuit.
Higher values of C1 and R3 will lead to longer charge and discharge rates, thus producing lower frequency oscillations.
Similarly, smaller values will produce higher frequency oscillations.
Here R1 and R2 also play a critical role in determining the frequency of the output waveform.
This is because they control the voltage thresholds that the C1 needs to charge up to.
For example, if the threshold set to 5V, then C1 only needs to charge and discharge up to 5V and -5V respectively.
On the other hand, if the threshold is set to 10V, then C1 is needed to charge and discharge to 10V and -10V.
will be:
f = 1 / 2 x R3 x C1 x ln (1 + k / 1 - k)
Here, K = R2 / R1 + R2
If the resistors R1 and R2 are equal to each other, then
f = 1 / 2.2 x R3 x C1
Application of Relaxation Oscillator
Relaxation Oscillator can be used in:
Signal generators
Counters
Memory circuits
Voltage control oscillators
Fun circuits
Oscillators
Multi-vibrators.
case-studies/using-led-lights-to-reduce-operating-cost-in-industries-that-run-24x7
Using LED Lights to Reduce Operating Cost in Industries that Run 24x7
All plants and industries that are running 24 x 7 should focus on taking the step towards operating in an energy-efficient manner by using LED lights instead of HPSV lights and fluorescent tube lights.
These observations were made using the same clamp meter, energy meter, and lux meter.
Similarly, 150, 250, 400 Watt HPSV lights were checked.
which means the reduction of 6.2 kW or 6 KVA demand.
With the increase in the number of replacements, demand comes down and so there is an increase in savings.
Suppose the demand comes down by 5 KVA and per KVA demand is Rs 300 per KVA, it means there will be savings of around Rs 1500 per month and aroundRs 18000 per year.
Payback period calculation of LED lights against HPSV lights and fluorescent tube-lightsis less than 2 years for lights that are running 24 x 7.
Various locations where replacement with LED will benefit industries are
1) CCR, Admin offices, lubrication rooms, load centres or substationswhere florescent tube-lights can be replaced with LED tube lights that run 24 x 7.
36 / 40 Watt can be easily replaced with 18/20 Watt.
2) Cable cellarandtransformer rooms.
3) Enclosed rooms likecompressor rooms,electricalormechanical workshops or enclosed rooms like packing plants, etc.
4) InsideSiloswhere semi-finished or finished material is stored.
Benefits of LED lights other than load reduction
1. Lighting load with same lumen i.e.70 Watt HPSV = 35-40 Watt LED, 150 Watt HPSV = 70-80 Watt LED, 250 Watt HPSV = 120-150 Watt LED will reduce.
Moreover, less wattage and no use ofchoke, ignitor and capacitor will lead to the reduction in current and copper loss I(Sqr)X resistance.
This will lead to the reduction of the KVA requirement of lighting transformers.
2. No use of choke, ignitor, and capacitorthat generally need to be changed every 2 years will lead to a reduction in maintenance cost.
Besides, LED lights come with a guarantee of 2-3 years depending on the manufacturer.
Moreover, there are lesser harmonics in the power system too as choke, ignitor, and the capacitor is not there in LED lights.
3. Compared toHPSV lights that are hot, LED lights are cool.
If HPSV light is kept on for more than 10 - 20 minutes, you will not be able to touch it as it produces heat, LED light, on the other hand, is cool light and eco-friendly too.
4. The running cost is reduced that directly results in the reduction of KWH/tonne of the finished product.
5. LED lights work at voltage range from 90 ᾠ300 volts due to which there is less fluctuation of voltage and minimal failure chances.
About the Author
is an Electrical Engineer with over 11 years of rich experience in Electrical Maintenance, Installation, Testing, and Commissioning of all major Electrical equipments.
He is specialized in bringing down Energy Cost of a Plant by reducing electricity bills and increasing energy efficiency.
He also reduces plant breakdown cost by implementing proper maintenance activities during routine and shutdown.
Through these Case Studies he shares his experience and challenges faced in his work routine with the readers of Circuit Digest.
tutorial/induction-motor-working-principle-single-phase-and-three-phase-induction-motor
Induction Motor Working Principle- Single Phase and Three Phase Induction Motor
The induction motor is an A.C electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Induction motor is used extensively in variously applications from basic domestic appliances to heavy industries.
The machine has so many applications that are hard to count and you can imagine the scale by knowing that almost 30% of electrical power generated globally gets consumed by induction motors itself.
This amazing machine is invented by the great scientist Nikola Tesla and this invention has permanently altered the course of human civilization.
that we can find in daily life.
Electric fans in the home
Drilling machines
Pumps
Grinders
Toys
Vacuum cleaner
Exhaust fans
Compressors and electric shavers
Small scale, Medium-scale and large scale industries.
Lifts
Cranes
Driving lathe machines
Oil extracting mills
Robotic arms
Conveyers belt system
Heavy crushers
come in many sizes & shapes having relative features and electrical ratings.
They vary from few centimeters to a few meters in size and have a power rating from 0.5Hp to 10000Hp.
The user can choose the most appropriate one from the ocean of models to meet his/her demand.
in detail.
Working Principle of Induction Motor
For understanding the working principle of an induction motor, let us consider a simple setup first as shown in the figure.
Here,
Two iron or ferrite cores of equal sizes are taken and are suspended in the air at a distance.
An enameled copper wire is wounded on the top core followed by the bottom one and two ends are taken to one side as shown in the figure.
The core here acts as a medium for carrying and concentrating the magnetic flux generated by the coil during operation.
at the two ends of the copper, we will have something like below.
:
, the positive voltage at point ‘Aᾠwill gradually goes from zero to maximum and then comes back to zero.
During this period the current flow in the winding can be represented as.
Here,
During the positive cycle of the AC power source, the current in both the windings increases gradually from zero to maximum and then gradually goes back from maximum to zero.
This is because according to Ohms law, the current in a conductor is directly proportional to terminal voltage, and we discussed it many times in previous articles.
The windings are wound in a way that current in both windings flow in the same direction, and we can see the same represented in the diagram.
If we add magnetic flux generated by the entire coil, then it will get a considerable value.
This entire flux will appear on the iron core as the coil was wound on the core body.
on both ends, then we will have something like below.
Here you can see the magnetic lines getting concentrated on the iron cores and its movement through the air gap.
This flux intensity is directly proportional to the current flowing in coils wound on both the iron bodies.
So during the positive half cycle, the flux goes from Zero to Maximum and then toned down from Maximum to Zero.
Once the positive cycle completed the field intensity at the air gap also reaches zero and after this, we will have a negative cycle.
:
During this negative cycle of the sinusoidal voltage, the positive voltage at point ‘Bᾠwill gradually goes from zero to maximum and then comes back to zero.
As usual, because of this voltage, there will a current flow and we can see the direction of this current flow in the windings in the figure below.
Since the current is linearly proportional to voltage, its magnitude in both the windings increases gradually from zero to maximum and then goes down from maximum to zero.
because of the current flow similar to the case studied in the positive cycle.
This field will get concentrated at the center of ferrite cores as shown in the figure.
Since the flux intensity is directly proportional to the current flowing in coils wound on both the iron bodies, this flux will also goes from Zero to Maximum and then toned down from Maximum to Zero following the magnitude of the current.
Although this is similar to a positive cycle, there is a difference and that is the direction of the magnetic field lines.
You can observe this difference in flux direction on diagrams.
We have developed a magnetic field concentrated area at the center of the iron cores.
The magnetic field intensity at the air gap keeps changing in both magnitude and direction.
The field follows the AC sinusoidal voltage waveform.
Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction
This is because a constantly changing magnetic field is the most basic and important requirement for electromagnetic induction.
We are studying this law here because Induction motor works on the principle of Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
Now to study the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, let us consider the setup below.
A conductor is taken and shaped it into a square with both ends short-circuited.
A metal rod is fixated at the center of the conductor square which acts as the axis of the setup.
Now conductor square can rotate freely along the axis and is called a rotor.
The rotor is placed at the center of the air gap so that the conductor loop can experience the maximum field generated by rotor coils.
According to this law of electromagnetic induction, an EMF should get induced in the rotor conductor placed at the center because of the changing magnetic field experienced by it.
Because of this induced EMF and conductor being short-circuited a current get flowed in the entire loop as shown in the figure.
Here comes the key to working of Induction motor, We know according to Lenz’s law a current-carrying conductor generates a magnetic field around it whose intensity is proportional to the magnitude of the current.
Since the law is universal then the conductor loop of the rotor must also generate a magnetic field because the current is flowing through it because of electromagnetic induction.
If we call the magnetic field generated by stator windings and iron core setup as Main flux or Stator flux.
Then we can call the magnetic field generated by the conductor loop of the rotor as Rotor flux.
Because of the interaction between Main flux and the Rotor flux a force gets experienced by the rotor.
This force tries to oppose the EMF induction into the rotor by adjusting the position of the rotor.
Hence we will experience a movement in the shaft position at this time.
Now the magnetic field keeps changing because of alternating voltage the force also keeps adjusting the rotor position continuously without stop.
So the rotor keeps rotating because of alternating voltage and thereby we have mechanical output at the shaft or the axis of the rotor.
With that, we have seen how because of Electromagnetic induction into the rotor we have mechanical output at the shaft.
So the name given for this setup is called Induction Motor.
Up until now what we have discussed is the working principle of induction motor but do remember that both theory and practical are different.
And for working of induction motor an additional setup is needed which we will discuss below.
Single Phase Induction Motor
The power line available for us at homes is 240V/50Hz AC single-phase power line and the Inductions motors which we use in our day to day life in our homes are called Single Phase Induction Motors.
For better understanding the working principle of single phase induction motor, let us look into the construction of Single Phase Induction Motor.
Here,
We will take multiple conductors and mounted them on the freely rotating shaft as shown in the figure.
Also, we will short the ends of all conductors with a metal ring thereby creating multiple conductors loops which we have studied earlier.
This rotor setup looks like a squirrel cage at a closer look and hence it is called a squirrel cage Induction Motor.
Here let’s have a look at the 3D structure of squirrel cage rotor.
The stator which was considered to be a complete iron piece is actually a group of thin iron sheets stacked together.
They are so closely pressed together there will literally no air between them.
We use a stack of iron sheets instead of a single iron piece for the same reason we use rolled iron sheets in the case of a power transformer that is to reduce iron losses.
By using the stacking method we will reduce power loss considerably while keeping by performance the same.
First, we will provide the AC voltage and because of this voltage, current flows through stator winding wound on both top and bottom segments.
Because of the current, a magnetic field gets generated on both top and bottom windings.
The bulk of iron sheets acts as a core medium for carrying the magnetic field generated by the coils.
This alternating magnetic field carried by the iron core gets concentrated at the central air gap because of the intentional structural design.
Now since the rotor is placed in this air gap the shorted conductors fixated on the rotor also experience this alternating field.
Because of the field, a current gets induced in the conductors of the rotor.
Since the current is passing through the rotor conductors a magnetic field will also get generated around the rotor.
Upon the interaction between the generated rotor magnetic field and stator magnetic field, a force gets experienced by the rotor.
This force moves the rotor along the axis and thereby we will have rotational motion.
Since the voltage is continuously changing sinusoidal voltage the rotor also keeps rotating continuously along its axis.
Thereby we will have a continuous mechanical output for given single phase input voltage.
Although we have assumed the rotor will rotate automatically after the power is given to the single-phase motor that is not the case.
Since the field generated by a single-phase induction motor is an alternating magnetic field and not a rotating magnetic field.
So at the start of the motor, the rotor gets locked on its position because the force experienced by it because of the bottom coil and the top coil will be of the same magnitude and opposite in direction.
So at the start, the net force experienced by the rotor is zero.
To avoid this we will use auxiliary winding for the induction motor to make it a self-starting motor.
This auxiliary winding will provide the necessary field to make the rotor move at the start.
The example for this case is the electric fan we see in our daily life, which is a capacitor start and runs an induction motor with auxiliary winding connected in series with the capacitor.
Three Phase Induction Motor
The Induction motor which works on three-phase AC electric power is called Three Phase Induction Motor.
Usually, Three Phase Induction Motors are used in industries and are not suitable for home applications.
The power line available for industries is 400V/50Hz Three phase four line AC power and the Inductions motors which work on this supply in industries are called Three Phase Induction Motors.
For better understanding the working principle of three-phase induction motor let us look into the construction of Three Phase Induction Motor.
Here,
Phase A winding starts from the top segment followed by the bottom segment as shown in the figure.
As for the two ends of Phase, A winding one is connected to Phase A power line of three-phase power supply while the other end is connected to the neutral of the same three phases four-line power supply.
This is possible because in a three-phase four-line power supply we have first three lines carrying three line voltages while the fourth line is neutral.
The other two-phase windings follow the same pattern as Phase A.
In the two ends of Phase B winding one is connected to the Phase B power line of three-phase power supply while the other end is connected to the neutral of same three phases four-line power supply.
The structure of the rotor is similar to a squirrel cage and is the same type of rotor which is used in a single-phase induction motor.
Now if we provide the electric power to the three-phase windings of the stator then the current starts flowing in all three windings.
Because of this current flow, a magnetic field will be generated by the coils and this field will flow through less magnetic resistivity path provided by the laminated core.
Here the structure of the motor is so designed that the magnetic field carried by core gets concentrated on the air gap at the center where the rotor is placed.
So the magnetic field concentrated by core at the center gap influences the conductors in the rotor thereby inducing a current in them.
In the presence of conductor current, the rotor also generates a magnetic field that interacts with the stator field at any given time.
And due to this interaction the rotor experience a force which lead to rotation of the motor.
and we do not need any auxiliary winding for this type of motor.
tutorial/things-to-know-about-ipc-standards-in-pcb-designing
Things to know about the IPC Standards in PCB Designing
its purpose and what we should consider from it as an engineer designing the PCB.
What is IPC Standard?
is a global trade association that sets certain standards for the manufacture of PCBs and other types of electronics components.
Apart from manufacturing, it also provides standards for the assembly, protection of electronic equipment, training, market research, and public policy advocacy.
all over the world as its members, these members are from various aspects of the electronics industry like designers, board manufacturers, suppliers, assembling companies and equipment manufacturers.
History behind IPC
ᾮ The organization was formed with the intention of removing the supply chain obstacles, creating industry standards and supporting the advancement of the industry.
The headquarters of IPC is located in Bannockburn lll, it also has offices in major countries like the United States, China, India, Sweden, and Russia.
Why is IPC standard Important?
The IPC standards make sure that the manufacturers build safe, reliable and high performing PCB boards by taking attention on the details of the manufacturing and dedication towards maintaining the quality throughout the manufacturing process.
so that they can meet the expectations of the customers along with the improvement in the production process in many different ways
The IPC standards support PCB manufacturers in many ways like
The IPC standards will help the manufacturers build products with improved quality and reliability.
When the Manufacturer maintains the Standards from the first step of the manufacturing process the end product will have the ability to perform better and lasts longer.
The quality and reliability of the product should be maintained to compete in the electronics industry, so the manufacturers should always maintain these two factors.
Maintaining the consistency in quality and other parameters is the toughest task for the manufacturers.
By maintaining the IPC certification the PCB manufacturers can maintain their consistency and which ultimately leads to customer satisfaction.
The IPC standards make sure that the same language has been used both internally and externally to define the terminologies associated with the life cycle of an electronic device, which reduces the risks of miscommunication too.
With IPC standards the customers, suppliers, vendors, regulators, and others involved in the process will be having better communication with one another.
The IPC is an internationally recognized standard, hence it is known by each and every individual in the electronics industry.
If you employ a new individual who doesn’t know anything about your company and if you have followed the IPC standard in your industry he/she can surely follow your reputation without any difficulties.
Hence this process will enhance the quality of your product and improve your reputation so that you will be able to attract more customers towards your product.
When you follow the IPC standards in each and every step of the manufacturing process the end product will be in better quality and it will also be reliable to use, hence there is no need to do quality checks for each and every product once it is manufactured, this will reduce testing costs.
Since everyone within the process is using the same terminologies for communication the possibilities of delays and reworks due to miscommunication also decrease, delays and reworks also cost the company.
Classes of electronics based on IPC Standards
According to the IPC standards, all electronic products are categorized under three different classes.
The Class one products are the general electronics products that we use every day, the primary requirements of this product are the function they deliver.
As the end product operation is more important this class is considered to be one of the most lenient classes when it comes to allowing potential defects.
The PCB boards mostly do not fall under Class 1.
The class 1 electronics usually have a shorter life cycle, the best example of a class 1 product is a flashlight.
The Products that require continued performance and extended life will fall under this class.
Products under this class mainly focus on uninterrupted services, hence they make sure these products didn’t get failures during the operation.
Some of the best examples of Class 2 Electronics are the Motherboard of a computer or a tablet, Circuit Boards in home appliances like television, Air conditioner, etc.
Class three electronics are of high standards which are meant for the critical application.
The devices under this class should provide continuous performance or performance on demand.
The class 1 electronics are usually cheaper and easily replaceable and the class 2 electronics are devices that require a long life cycle whereas the class 3 electronics are mission-critical items.
The best examples that describe the class three electronics are the pacemaker and the military radar, which are needed to be highly reliable and ensure uninterrupted delivery of services.
Conditions used in IPC for refining a Product
This is the near-perfect condition that all the manufacturers will be aiming to achieve even this condition might not always be achieved.
This is not the ideal condition accepted as there could be trade-offs between design and performance, but this condition delivers great reliability.
If the Product is in defect condition it will be rejected as it needs to be reworked or repaired.
There are certain conditions that do not affect either the form or function of the product, but this condition will be available in the product due to the material, design or machine-related factors.
Some of the commonly used IPC standards
It is the standard used for sending information between a PCB designer and a manufacturer or assembly company.
It helps in delivering a standardized format for exchanging design data that help to ensure consistent production results.
It is the standard that is used for designing the PCBs, this standard addresses the topics associated with the designing of a PCB such as design, layout, materials, mechanical and physical properties, electrical properties, thermal limitations, parts list and more.
It establishes the qualification and performance required for the fabrication of rigid PCBs.It delivers the requirements for the products in areas such as structural integrity, solderability, and conductor spacing.
It sets up the acceptable criteria for the PCBs, it describes what is the target condition of the PCB and what are the conditions acceptable and non conforming for all the parts of the PCB.
It describes everything from gold fingering to copper plating.
IPC has published the test methods for PCB boards under IPC-TM-650, It provides the guidelines for assessing various aspects of PCBs.
It provides the test methods for testing a board’s propensity for surface electromagnetic migration, measuring resistance to the flow current across a PCB substrate surface, methods for ionic cleanliness testing and more.
Apart from these standards, there are many more standards for each and every aspect of PCB board designing even the most minute aspects that you couldn’t even imagine.
All these stands focus on delivering better electronic products that are reliable to be used.
interview/ashish-bajaj-co-founder-of-coco-on-how-his-platform-could-improve-data-security-in-iot-devices
Ashish Bajaj, Co-Founder of COCO on how his platform could improve Data Privacy in IoT Devices through Cloudless P2P Networking Platform
According to research predictions, 41.6 billion IoT devices will be generating around 79.4 zettabytes of data in the year 2025 and with the proliferation of IoT and Smart Homes; this is only set to increase.
These growing numbers might result in a myriad of unsecured connected gadgets without any middleware to organize and secure them.
which is a secure P2P middleware that separates the data plane from the business logic.
It connects apps and devices into a mesh overlay network with a common language of communication to allow for apps and devices to interoperate easily.
India, Ashish has 15 + years of learning and problem-solving experience in areas like Video and Camera DSP Firmware, Low Power Chipset SoC Architectures, 2G/3G/4G Wireless Networking Power Optimizations, and Machine Learning Software Frameworks.Take a look at what he has to say about the company and their product!
and allows for building a cluster of apps, devices, and services to be able to intercommunicate with each other without a central server to broker the information.
and Vision Algorithms required to make our homes and cities safer are going to become commonplace.
So let’s take the connected car, for example, it is expected to generate 3 TB/day/car.
Sending all this data over the cloud is extremely expensive.
Further, the internet has no QoS guarantees, so we cannot rely on the cloud for deciding on if the light is green OR changing lanes, etc.
Such use cases will need to be done right on the device OR on the edge of the network.
in a future imaginary world that is just around the corner.
We have stabilized our software and ideas by implementing this in holistic Smart Home solution that we will be introducing in India very shortly.
that are known to defend against many exploits.
But beyond this, in my opinion, there is a technology barrier.
An OEM company that was traditionally delivering an electro-mechanical system like a washing machine or coffee maker now has to ramp up and create a fully connected system that includes firmware, software, and cloud.
Many of them lack technical expertise in security.
Our view is that such companies should connect with IoT Platform vendors like us, and leverage our COCO platform that has built-in support for security as well as user data privacy.
Imagine your Smartwatch as the key to your car, your car infotainment system connected to your in-home entertainment system so that you can move the content you were watching from the home to the car, and all of this working with distributed AI services that are constantly learning and helping improve traffic safety.
world.
We provide SDK’s for both device development as well as app development.
Both these apps and devices will inherently work with the COCO Smart Home with minimal efforts.
that is under product development.
Once launched, this will allow our development community to create Value Added Services that can be subscribed to by COCO users.
We expect the hobbyist community to enjoy this, as it enables Serverless development of AI services, Storage service, Bridge/Cloud-to-Cloud services, that can be released and bespoke installed by COCO users for enhancing their Smart Home experiences.
We are currently in the early stage discussions within the company for developing a partner program.
We will be looking to onboard System Integrators and Independent Software Vendors with our partner program to help create a community that enhances COCO to become the interoperable and private Smart Home Ecosystem.
COCO SDKs are hardware agnostic POSIX compliant libraries, with a slew of support services to launch all of your IoT projects in the shortest amount of time.
We have cross-compiled COCO to various many platforms like Linux, OSx, Android, iOS, Raspbian, etc.
Additionally, we offer language bindings in C, Java, and Swift.
We are looking to add support for NodeJS and Python very soon as well.
COCO itself is the decentralized communication middleware and platform.
For specifically our home automation kit, we have identified a few radio technologies that are important for that market segment.
We don’t believe LoRaWAN has a large role to play in the connected home space.
, and in those cases, there will be bridges required between Smart Homes and Smart Buildings to exchange telemetry M2M data and synchronize their learning and decision-making processes.
Currently, COCO is pre-launch.
Our services will go live very shortly.
We are looking forward to building a deep technical community around COCO to help us evolve our offering.
Immediately on the launch, we expect our products to be sold directly to the consumer.
market becoming front and center between the year 2020-2023, and triple in its total market size.
Having said that, there are two challenges in the India market:
India is a value market, and unless the cost points are correct, it’s hard to see mass-market adoption.
Most home automation is sold in Do-it-Yourself (DIY) form and India as a market is not DIY.
So it’s pretty hard to get consumer adoption.
We are currently forging some early-stage partnerships at the moment to address some of these issues out so that we can break some adoption barriers.
Many of our ideas are experimental so I would like not to reveal them yet.
COCO solves a lot of the infrastructure and scaffolding problems that are common to any connected development.
So when a developer uses COCO, he can focus his time and attention on solving his core problem and creating value for his users.
So let me explain this in a bit more detail:
#1 COCO is available in many languages and platforms, so the developer can choose a technology stack and programming language he is already comfortable in rather than learning something new.
#2 COCO provides the ability to create networks that include User Account Management, so he doesn’t need to waste time designing and maintaining a Authentication/Authorization User Management System.
#3 In the App-to-Device and Device-to-Device cases, COCO provides standardized communications, and so there is absolutely zero design time spent in writing backend code.
#4 Additionally because COCO is P2P and Serverless, in the App-to-App communication case the backend can be distributed across the network directly in the frontend code.
So the developer doesn’t need to deal with backend development and the typical issues with hosting, scaling and dev-ops.
#5 Finally, from a user experience standpoint, because we are building a Realtime Streaming API, we have immense focus on Optimizing for latency, streaming (if required), connectivity transitions, support for offline mode functioning, etc.
This gives the developer a simple connectivity framework that is powerful for many use cases in that are around the corner in our IoE world.
The COCO Developer Edition is the most fun way to get started with COCO.
If you can write code in C/Java/Swift, all you do is install the Client SDK, and write 5 lines of code to start changing the colors of a Zigbee light bulb.
If you like to use Z-wave instead, you don’t need to change a line of code, your app works automaticallywith both radio standards! We abstract out everything.
It’s a lot of fun to write software applications that integrate real-world actions and data with other computer and human-generated data.
Currently, the COCO Developer Edition is not available for sale or pre-booking.
All I can say is that we are close to making some announcements about our launch dates and are eager to see it in our usersᾠhands.
Here, is an early sneak peek at the kit that we bringing to bear:
We are excited to be introducing a whole lot of new products this year.
We will be adding nine more Zigbee devices, an indoor camera, an outdoor camera, a doorbell, and my favorite a 4G Enabled OBD-II dongle that connects into my car and interoperates with my COCO Smart Home.
Another product category that I am very excited about is the COCO Grove that I mentioned earlier.
This will empower both Developers and Users to exchange immense value on top of the COCO Platform.
case-studies/importance-of-relay-coordination-in-process-industries
Importance of Relay Coordination in Process Industries
, we will discuss the same in this case study.
never occurred.
This issue had arisen for the second time in the last 3 months and our team was called to address the issue.
The very first thing that we did was to check whether the complete electrical system was properly coordinated or not and it was found that the system was well coordinated since the commissioning stage and they had the records for the same.
Therefore, a total of around 217 kW was added and the settings were manually adjusted according to the MCC incomer and PCC outgoing panel.
and it took around 2 hours to start back.
Besides, the time, all the efforts put in for the modification to improve stability and efficiency went waste.
Ideally, the MCC-6 Incomer should have tripped and not the motor because the motor started normally with just the extra load on it.
tutorial/different-types-of-wireless-power-transmission-technologies-and-their-working
Different Types of Wireless Power Transfer Technologies and their Working
So any portable devices like laptops or mobile phones are needed to be connected to AC power lines to recharge their batteries regularly.
to demonstrate the concept of Tesla coils.
Although even now there is no effective way to deliver high power wirelessly, it is possible to design a circuit with the present technologic advancements to transfer low power between two systems effectively.
And the wireless chargers are designed based on this newly developed circuit which enables it to deliver power to smartphones and other small electronic devices wirelessly.
Various Wireless Charging Technology used in Wireless Charger
Ever since the concept of wireless power transfer became popular both scientists and engineers came up with various ways to realize this concept.
Although most of these experiments led to failures or unpractical results, few of these experiments did produce satisfactory results.
These tested and working ways for achieving wireless power transfer have their own advantages, disadvantages, and features.
Among these various methods, only a couple are used in designing Wireless Chargers.
Whiles other methods have their own application area and advantages.
and their classification.
Here,
The first and most important classification is based on how farpower transfer is possible.
In the experimented methods, some are capable of delivering power wirelessly to loads at large distance away while others could only deliver power to loads only a few centimeters away from the source.
So the first division is based on whether the method is of Near Field or Far Field.
The difference in distance capability comes based on the type of phenomenon used by various methods to achieve wireless power transfer.
For example, if the medium used by the method to deliver power is Electro-Magnetic Induction then the maximum distance can be no higher than 5cm.
This is because the loss of magnetic flux increases exponentially with an increase in distance between source and load which leads to unacceptable power losses.
On the other hand, if the medium used by the method to deliver power is Electro Magnetic Radiation then the maximum distance can go as high a few meters.
This is because EMR can be concentrated to a focal point which is at meters away from the source.
Also, methods that use EMR as a medium to deliver power have higher efficiency when compared with others.
In the many ways mentioned above, some are more popular than others and the popular methods used widely are discussed below.
Microwave Wireless Power Transfer
As the name itself gives it away in this method it will use the Microwave spectrum of EMR to deliver power to load.
First, the transmitter will draw power from an outlet or any other stable power source and then regulate this AC power to the required level.
After that, the transmitted power will generate microwaves by consuming this regulated power supply.
The microwaves travel through air without any interruption to reach the receiver or load.
The Receiver will be equipped with appropriate devices to receive this microwave radiation and converting it into electrical energy.
This converted electric power is directly proportional to the amount of microwave radiation reached to the receiver and hence wireless power transfer using Microwave radiation is achieved.
Laser Light Wireless Power Transfer
can be easily build using solar panels.
But the key issue here is the energy transferred by the sun to the earth is in the form of Electro Magnetic Radiation and is specifically in the visible spectrum and the transfer of energy here done wirelessly.
Hence the concept of solar power generation isitself a mega Wireless Power Transmission System.
(or simply a light source) then we can focus the radiation generated on to a load which is hundreds of meters away from the light source.
Once this focused light reaches the solar panel of the receiver module (or load), it converts the light energy into electric power which is the original goal of wireless power transmission setup.
as the principle and Magnetic flux as propagating phenomenon to achieve wireless power transmission.
Wireless Power Transmission using Inductive Coupling
The setup used in Inductive coupling is very similar to the one used for Electrical Transformer.For better understanding, let us look into the typical application circuit of the Inductive Coupling Wireless Power Transfer method.
In the above functional diagram, we have two sections one is an electric power transmission setup, and the other is the electric power receiver setup.
Both sections are electrically isolated with each other and are separated by an insulator of a couple of centimeter width.
Though both sections do not have any electrical interaction still there is a magnetic coupling between them.
The AC voltage source present in the transmitter module provides power to the entire system.
From the beginning, a current flow in the conductor coil is present in the Transmitter module because an AC voltage source is connected to the end terminals of the coil.
And because of this current flow, a magnetic field should be generated around the conductors of the coil which is tightly wound around a ferrite core.
Because of the presence of a medium, all the magnetic flux of the coil gets concentrated on the ferrite core.
This flux moves along the axis of the ferrite core and gets ejected into the free space outside the transmission module as shown in the figure.
Now, if we bring the receiver module near the transmitter, then the magnetic flux emitted by the transmitter will cut the coil present in the receiver module.
Since flux generated by the transmitter module is varying flux, then an EMF must be induced into the conductor brought in its range according to Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction.Based on this theory an EMF must also be inducted into the receiver coil which is experiencing the magnetic flux generated by the transmitter.
This generated voltage will be rectified, filtered, and regulated to get a proper DC voltage which is very much needed for the system controller.
to make the transmitter and receiver more compact and light.
You can see this application in Wireless mobile phone charger and Smartphone pair.
As we all know industries at present competing neck to neck to release high-performance smartphones and other devices that are lighter, slimmer, and cooler.
The designers are literally having nightmares to achieve these features without compromising the performance, so making the device bulky just for the sake of wireless power transmission is unacceptable.
So the designers and engineering coming up with more slimmer and lighter modules that can be fitted into smartphones and tablets.
The Smartphone with the wireless power capability will also have a similar coil to make the electromagnetic induction possible.
You can see in the below figure, how the slim coil is attached at the bottom end of the Smartphone near to the battery.
You can see how engineers designed this wireless charger so slim without compromising in its performance.
The working of this setup is similar to the case discussed above except that it’s not having any ferrite core at the center of the winding.
Although this way of transmitting power through Electromagnetic Induction seems easy but it’s not comparable to an efficient method of delivering power through the cable.
Magnetic Resonant Induction based Wireless Power Transfer
Magnetic Resonant Induction is a form of inductive coupling in which power is transferred by magnetic fields between two resonant circuits (tuned circuits), one in the transmitter and one in the receiver.
Because of this, the setup of the Magnetic Resonant Induction circuit must be very similar to the Inductive Coupling circuit which we discussed previously.
You can see in this figure except for the presence of series capacitors the entire circuit is similar to the previous case.
The working of this model is also very similar to the previous case except here the circuits present in transmitter and receiver are tuned to operate at the resonant frequency.
The capacitors are specially connected in series with both the coils to achieve this resonant effect.
as shown in the figure.
And the value of frequency at which this circuit will operate at resonance can be given as,
Fr = 1 / 2(LC)1/2
Here L = Inductor value and C = Capacitor value.
By using the same formula we will calculate the value of resonant frequency for the power transmitter circuit and adjust the AC power source frequency to that calculated value.
as we discussed in the previous case.
And this induced EMF will be rectified, filtered and regulated to get a proper DC voltage as shown in the figure.
Up until now, we discussed various techniques that can be used for wireless power transmission along with their typical application circuits.
And we use these methods to develop circuits for all the wireless power transmission systems like wireless charger, wireless electric vehicle charging system, wireless power transfer for drones, planes, etc.
Wireless Power Transfer Standards
Now with each company developing its own productions and charging stations, there is a need for common standards among all developers in order to make the consumer choose the best among the ocean of choices.
So a couple of standards are followed by all industries that are working on developing wireless power transmission systems.
Various standards used to developing wireless power transfer devices like wireless charger:
:
Technology - Inductive, Resonant - Low Frequency
Low power - 5W, Medium Power - 15W, Qi Cordless kitchen appliances from 100W to 2.4kW
Frequency range - 110 ᾠ205 kHz
Products - 500+ products and used in more than 60 cellular phone companies
Technology - Inductive, Resonant - High Frequency
Power Out Max from 3.5W to 50W
Frequency range - 277 ᾠ357 kHz
Products ᾠonly 2 but 1,00,000 power mats units are distributed globally
The wireless charger is very useful for charging home-based devices like a smartphone, laptop, iPod, notebook, earphone, etc,
It provides a convenient, safe and effective way to transfer power without any medium.
Environmental friendly - Doesn’t harm or injure a human or any living being.
It can be used to charge medical implants which results in an improvement in the quality of life and reduces the risk of infection.
No need for usual worry about the wear and tear of the power jack.
Fumbling over power cable orientation is over with the use of wireless chargers.
Less efficiency and more power loss.
Costs more than the cable charger.
Repairing on the fault is difficult.
Not suitable for high power delivery.
Energy losses increase with load.
review/stm32f-nucleo-64-development-board
STM32F Nucleo-64 Development Boards Review
and learn how to use them.
Similarly, there are many other versions of Nucleo 64 boards like the STM32F103, STM32F303, etc, but once you learn about one board all the others are quite similar.
STM32 Nucleo 64 Development Board Hardware Explanation
Let's begin by unboxing our Development Board.
As you can see the complete package only consists of our development board and an instruction card.
The instruction card mentions the specifications of the controller, its pinouts, and on the backside, we have some information on how to get started and available toolchain options.
debugger and programmer while the bottom section is your actual development board.
This way you can easily program and debug your board out of the box just with an additional USB cable that can be connected to the USB mini port on the board.
On the first look, the board might seem to have a lot of jumpers and components, but they all are there to make things easy for us.The Two jumpers that you find either side of the board CN11 and CN12 are actually dummy jumper, these jumpers can be used for other purposes if needed in the future.
The two jumpers on CN2 are used to connect the programmer and debugger section with our development board.
In the future, you can remove these jumpers to use the programmer for other ST microcontrollers through these pins.
And this connector pin JP1 can be closed to limit the USB current to 100mA, if left open the maximum current will be 300mA.
Over here we have a Tricolor LED (LD1) which turns on as Red when the board is powered and turns to green when the board is successfully programmed and turns orange when there is a communication failure.
to get more technical information.
as you can see in the image below.
which can be used to utilize the reaming pins on our 64-pin microcontroller.
Then we have a reset button here and a user-configurable button that is connected to pin PC13 and also an LED here which is connected to pin D13 just like Arduino.
To power the board we can either use the USB port or directly provide regulated 5V to the E5V or to the 5V pin here.
Remember to change this jumper to indicate how you are powering the board; U5V indicates the board is powered by USB.
We also have another interesting jumper pin here called IDD which can be used to measure how much current your microcontroller is consuming by connecting an ammeter to these pins.
Programing the STM32 Nucleo 64 Development Boards
It is a huge open source community and getting in detail about it will require a separate article.
Getting Started with STM32F401
But, to get started, use a USB mini cable to connect your STM32 development board with your computer.
Once powered, you should notice the LD1 and LD3 LED’s light up in red, and the programmable LED LD2 will be blinking in green color like this.
Open it and you will find two files namely details.txt and mbed.htm as shown below.
and download it directly from the ST website, install the driver and make sure the device is discovered correctly in your device manager as shown here.
Get back to your mbed platform to sign up on MBED.com with your credentials.
Then, click on the MBED.HTM file and you will be greeted with the following page.
ᾠand modify it so that the LED turns off whenever I press the push button.
Once the code is ready as shown below, you can click on the compile button, which will provide you a bin file, just copy the bin file and paste it in your flash drive to program your board.
You will notice the LD1 LED turning Green once programming is complete.
Now press the blue button and you will notice the Green LED turning off.
Like that you can try any of the example programs to learn different functionalities of the board.
You can also go back to the main page to get other technical documents and community support.
You can also watch the video linked at the bottom of this page, to view the complete review on this board.
It is very widely used for stepping up and stepping down the voltage at the electrical power generating station and distribution station (or substation) respectively.
For example, consider the block diagram shown above.
Here power transformer is used two times while delivering electric power to a consumer who is far away from the generating station.
First time is at power generating station to step-up the voltage generated by the wind generator.
Second is at the distribution station (or substation) to step-down the voltage received at the end of the transmission line.
Power Loss in Transmission Lines
There are many reasons for using a power transformer in electrical power systems.
But one of the most important and simple reason for using the power transformer is to reduce power losses during electric power transmission.
Now let’s see how power loses is reduced considerably by using a power transformer:
First, the equation of Power loss P = I*I*R.
Here I = current through the conductor and R = Resistance of conductor.
So, power loss is directly proportional to the square of the current flowing through the conductor or transmission line.
So lower the magnitude of current going through the conductor lesser the power losses.
How we will take advantage of this theory is explained below:
Say initial voltage = 100V and load draws = 5A & power delivered = 500watt.
Then transmission lines here have to carry a current of magnitude 5A from source to load.
But if we step-up the voltage at the initial stage to 1000V then transmission lines only have to carry 0.5A to deliver the same power of 500Watt.
So, we will step-up the voltage at the start of the transmission line using a power transformer and use another power transformer to step-down the voltage at the end of the transmission line.
With this setup, the magnitude of current flow through 100+Kilometer transmission line is reduced considerably thereby reducing the power loss during transmission.
Difference between Power Transformer and Distribution Transformer
The power transformer is usually operated in full load because it is designed to have high efficiency at 100% load.
On the other hand, the Distribution transformer has high efficiency when the load stays between 50% and 70%.
So, distribution transformers are not suitable to run at 100% load continuously.
Since power transformer leads to high voltages during step-up and step-down, the windings have high insulation when compared with distribution transformers and instrument transformers.
Because they use high-level insulation, they are very bulky in size and are also very heavy.
Since power transformers are usually not connected to homes directly, they experience less load fluctuations, while on the other have distribution transformers experience heavy load fluctuations.
These are loaded fully for 24 hrs a day, so copper and iron losses take place throughout the day and they stay very much the same the entire time.
The flux density in the Power Transformer is higher than the Distribution Transformer.
Power Transformer Working Principle
It is the basic law of electromagnetism which explains the working principle of inductors, motors, generators, and electrical transformers.
In order to understand the law better, let us discuss it in more detail.
First, let's consider a scenario below.
to each other first.
Then the conductor is short-circuited at both ends using a wire as shown in the figure.
In this case, there will be no current flow in the conductor or the loop because the magnetic field cutting the loop is stationary and as mentioned in the law, only a varying or changing magnetic field can force current in the loop.
So in the first case of the stationary magnetic field, there will be zero flow in the conductor loop.
then the magnetic field cutting the loop keeps changing.
Since there is a varying magnetic field present in this case, Faraday's laws will come to play and thereby we can see a current flow in the conductor loop.
As you can see in the figure, after the magnet moves back and forth we get to see a current ‘Iᾠflowing through the conductor and the closed-loop.
to replace it with other varying magnetic field sources like below.
Now an Alternating voltage source and a conductor are used to generate a varying magnetic field.
After the conductor loop brought near to the magnetic field range, then we can see an EMF generated across the conductor.
Because of this induced EMF, we will have a current flow ‘Iᾮ
The magnitude of induced voltage is proportional to field strength experienced by the second loop, so the higher the magnetic field strength, the higher the current flow in the closed-loop.
Although it is possible to use a single conductor set up to understand Faraday's law.
But for better practical performance using a coil on both sides is preferred.
And because of that voltage in coil2 a current ‘Iᾠflows through the secondary closed circuit.
Now you have to remember that both coils are suspended in the air so the medium of conduction used by the magnetic field is air.
And the air has higher resistance compared to metals in the case of magnetic field conduction, so if we use a metal or ferrite core to act as a medium for electromagnetic field then we can experience electromagnetic induction more thoroughly.
for further understanding.
from one coil to another coil.
During this time the magnetic flux leaked into the atmosphere will be considerably lesser than the time we used air medium as a core is a very good conductor of the magnetic field.
Once the field is generated by coil1 it will flow through the iron core reaching the coil2 and because of faradays law coil2 generates an EMF which will be read by the galvanometer connected across coil2.
And yes every transformer present today works on the same principle.
Three Phase Transformer
The skeleton of the transformer is designed by staking laminated metal sheets that are used for carrying magnetic flux.
In the diagram, you can see the skeleton is painted gray.
The skeleton has three columns on which windings of three phases are wound.
The lower voltage winding is wound first and is wound closer to the core while higher voltage winding is wound on top of the lower-voltage winding.
Do remember, both the windings are separated by an insulation layer.
Here each column represents one phase, so for three columns, we have three-phase winding.
This entire setup of skeleton and winding is immersed in a sealed tank filled with industrial oil for better heat conductivity and isolation.
After the winding, the end terminals of all six coils were brought out of the sealed tank through an HV insulator.
The terminals are fixated at a fair distance away from each other to avoid spark jumps.
Features of Power Transformer
3 MVA up to 200 MVA
11, 22, 33, 66, 90, 132, 220 kV
3.3, 6.6, 11, 33, 66, 132 kV or custom specification
Single or three-phase transformers
50 or 60 Hz
On-load or off-load tap changers
60/65C or custom specification
ONAN (oil natural air natural) or other types of cooling such as KNAN (max 33kV) on request
Tank-mounted cooling radiator panels
Dyn11 or any other vector group as per IEC 60076
Via on-load tap changer (with AVR relay as standard)
Air cable box type (33kV max) or open bushings
Indoor or Outdoor
As per ENATS 35 or NEMA TR1
Applications of Power Transfer
The power transformer is mainly used in electric power generation and at distribution stations.
It is also used in Isolation transformers, earthing transformers, six pulse and twelve Pulse rectifier transformers, solar PV farm transformers, wind farm transformers and in Korndrfer autotransformer starter.
It is used for reducing power losses during electric power transmission.
It is used for high voltage step-up and high voltage step-down.
It is preferred during long-distance consumer cases.
And preferred in cases where load runs at full capacity 24x7.
interview/gautham-pasupuleti-ceo-of-biodesign-innovation-labs-tackling-reparatory-illness-with-affordable-and-innovative-medical-technologies
Gautham Pasupuleti CEO of Biodesign Innovation Labs - Tackling Respiratory Illness with Affordable and Innovative Medical Technologies
which is also a part of Biodesign Innovation Labsᾠproduct.
Our curiosity to know more about the healthcare startup, latest innovations and its contribution in the health sector, persuaded the CircuitDigest team to approach Mr.
Gautham Pasupuleti, CEO and managing director of BioDesign Innovation Labs and ask few questions to which his replies are jotted below.
, in South India at various capacities.
Through design thinking, the approach to problem-solving and building solutions that cater to specific needs were the primary motivation behind starting this Medtech company.
Our company “Biodesign Innovation Labs Private Limitedᾠwas started at Bengaluru.
Me andAdithyahad the vision to make healthcare accessible and affordable to all.
One of our key focuses is reducing mortality due to respiratory illnesses.
Respiratory illness is one of the major causes of deaths in the developing countries and we visited many hospitals across India to understand the various pain-points in the hospital system especially in ICU, emergency, and pediatrics.
2017 from Global Health MGH, Elevate 100 from KBITS which helped us to accelerate product development catering to the pediatric age group by developing respiratory support devices.
We are also supported by Nidhi Prayas and BIRAC.
The company is focused on developing lifesaving technologies, innovations and making it accessible across various markets through partnerships and collaborations.
It is our mission to impact billions of people with affordable and accessible medical technologies that can save lives.
Respiratory illness is one of the major reasons for mortality globally.
1 in 6 deaths is due to respiratory illnesses.
We have identified various problems and needs associated with the existing standard of care in this vast field of respiratory care.
One of the problems we identified was the lack of ventilators and shortage of resources which was the major cause ofmortality and morbidity.
With this initial problem statement and need statement, our team at Biodesign Innovation Labs has designed and developed the product RespirAID that caters to the need.
that is developed by Biodesign Innovation Labs to make healthcare accessible and affordable.
It is an alternative for prolonged manual ventilation using bag valve mask devices and can safely deliver positive pressure ventilation to patients with need of ventilation.
During the shortage of ventilators or within the transit of patients, our solution- RespirAID can be used until sophisticated ventilators are available.
The device can save the lives of patients with respiratory illness, during emergencies, etc.
The device is different from other ventilators with its novel functionalities, easy to use capabilities, portable solution for transit use, proprietary design and technology of data processing and affordable solution.
and DPIIT Startup India with meet and greet sessions.
In addition to this, they have been providing us with technical support, business workshops and mentoring.
We are grateful for Qualcomm to support our startup with its initiatives through QDIC.
We will be pitching for the finals during March 2020.
We are positive about our progress and scaling with speed is something we have learned during this cohort.
In October 2019, we presented our innovation RespirAID at Xpomet Medicinale - Healthcare Conference in Berlin, Germany.
We have received a great response from the industry experts and we see that our products for the global market including the US, Europe in addition to India and other developing countries.
following the regulatory pathways.
that startups face.
There are also a lot of regulatory workshops conducted by the government of India which create a clear pathway for startups in terms of regulations and quality standards.
We are overwhelmed with the support from the government and grateful for mentoring/incubation support from IKP to help us in overcoming these challenges that every startup medtech/biotech face.
and platforms for screening, diagnostics, monitoring, management, and therapeutics can accelerate treatment and provide reliable solutions.
In addition to AI, there is more investment required for startups in healthcare to pursue higher challenges and to make better technologies for tomorrow’s challenges.
Our team consists of doctors, engineers, researchers, designers, domain experts and public health professionals working on developing lifesaving innovations to improve quality of care and save lives.
We are based out of Bangalore, India.
Ecosystem support has been tremendous since the inception of our company.
We have been supported by the Government of Karnataka, BIRAC- DBT Government of India, DST Nidhi Prayas to help us with Research and Development.
In addition to this, IKP Knowledge Park has provided constant support with incubation, mentoring and funding support.
We are grateful to all our supporters who helped us achieve our goals and continue to do so.
is one of the primary factors for us and we tend to spend more time in identifying the right approach that is in the best interest of the product.
This involves a lot of R&D in analyzing, testing different things and figuring out.
We try to source a few components from online electronics authorized manufacturers, resellers or distributors, etc.
based on the requirement.
are both suitable for low resource healthcare settings including rural, semi-rural and urban poor regions.
case-studies/importance-of-relay-selection-in-grid-connected-industries
Importance of Relay Selection in Grid-Connected Industries
in a substation and all the consumers were informed regarding the same 2 weeks in advance.
It went as planned and the power was resumed within 2.5 hours but the connected industries could not start, because the Protection Relay did not allow the Grid to close and turn on.
which was found healthy (in good condition) and checking if there were any modification(s) or change(s) made in writing during the shutdown.
It too wasn’t the case.
A distressed call from the user helped in understanding what exactly went wrong.
The users were enquired whether all necessary measures were taken.
They were asked to check the relay configuration which people at the plant didn’t necessarily know about and were told to reboot the relay if in case it may have hanged.
in relay for all the combinations as RYB, RBY, YRB, YBR, BYR, BRY.
Surprisingly, with the combination RBY, the relay contact got reset and the plant was started.
The issue which gave rise to this situation was now clear.
The motors were running in the reverse direction which thereby added to the downtime.
The same happened with other plants too.
during the shutdown.
Witnessing this scenario, it is advisable that the original wiring is kept so that if such a situation occurs again, the same can be identified and rectified.
in the best way.
(either in projects or retrofitting), all the points are considered for protection and process perspective.
case-studies/importance-of-vermin-proofing-and-periodic-maintenance-in-ht-and-lt-lines
Importance of Vermin Proofing and Periodic Maintenance in HT and LT Panels
Vermin is a term that we use for animals, mostly reptiles and birds which cause significant damage or annoyance.
These animals love to set up their house in the nooks and crannies where control and protection wiring are housed.
These small creatures try to get inside such nooks and corners and sometimes get stuck in electrical machines/installations thereby causing unbearable damages.
Of course, they die too!
As a part of service, we check complete Switchgears.
HT Panel & LT Panel maintenance is done which includes Relay Testing, Breaker servicing, and testing, control panel cleaning and tightening, CT & PT testing.
Switchyard servicing and maintenance in the plants is also done.
Graphic Content Ahead!!
which were dead.
The question that comes to our mind is as to how these two mice traveled to an 11 kV bus? If the system wasn’t checked or the maintenance had been neglected, these two mice could have led to the breakdown of the system resulting in lacks or in fact corers of damage.
Of course, there could have been a risk of the life of individuals working at the plant as well.
Besides, this could have led to the transfer/suspension/termination of the members from the maintenance team as a consequence.
with the panel could be the reason for mice to enter the panel easily.
There were around 50 panels but only one panel was found with this kind of problem leaving an error margin of 2%.
However, this could have caused the marginally higher loss.
On being enquired, the maintenance team said that they didn’t get the chance to check the complete panel in the last shut down due to the unavailability of required skilled manpower.
They also told us that the limited period of the shutdown and the entire panel cubical was checked 3 years back.
In this case, out of 35 panels, only one panel was found where vermin proofing was breached.
Again the error margin was of 2% and this too could have caused the marginally higher loss.
during every annual shutdown or complete cleaning; servicing and maintenance of HT Panels should be done every 2 years to ensure safety and surety.
This type of check on regular intervals is not possible in case of Bus bar as its altogether a different issue and requires heavy planning for the complete blackout.
every year through the third party.
As part of service and cleaning, control wiring simulation and tightening, cleaning of complete panel cubical (front and rear), CT & PT testing (if needed) should be done.
For this, Testing/Service Engineer takes technicians and helpers from the contractor and then with the help of indent cleaner, brush, scrubs, blower, tool kits like screwdriver set, spanner set, etc.
gets the task done.
Such instances help us understand the importance of vermin proofing of the panel that must be done appropriately and panels must be checked periodically without fail.Negligence in such cases could pose serious threats to electrical installations and people working at the plant.
Besides, this could directly lead to incurring heavy losses in monetary terms too.
About the Author
is an Electrical Engineer with over 11 years of rich experience in Electrical Maintenance, Installation, Testing, and Commissioning of all major Electrical equipments.
He is specialized in bringing down Energy Cost of a Plant by reducing electricity bills and increasing energy efficiency.
He also reduces plant breakdown cost by implementing proper maintenance activities during routine and shutdown.
Through these Case Studies he shares his experience and challenges faced in his work routine with the readers of Circuit Digest.
tutorial/an-overview-of-plc-and-various-arduino-plc-boards
Overview of PLC and Various Arduino based PLC Boards
Arduino was first introduced in 2005 aiming to provide a low-cost and easy way for novices and professionals to create devices that interact with their environment using sensors and actuators.
was introduced.
And with this, the hobbyists or engineers can design and develop their own projects without much professional help.
and publishing something online.
, Panda, etc.
Arduino is used as the brain in thousands of projects, from everyday objects to complex scientific instruments.
Students, hobbyists, artists, programmers, and professionals around the world have gathered around this open-source platform and developed many projects thereby amassing an incredible amount of knowledge that can be of great help to novices and experts alike.
Introduction to PLC (Programmable Logic Controller)
is a controller unit specially designed to operate the machines used for Industrial Automation.
They are designed to be reliable under harsh industrial environments (like extreme temperatures, humid, wet, dusty conditions).
PLC applications can be seen at the manufacturing plant’s assembly line, an ore processing plant, robotic welding, CNC carving, etc.
Since this equipment is designed for high efficiency and the rugged environment they are costly for both installing and repairing.
to get an overview of its comparision with microcontrollers.
in the market according to the requirements of the customer.
Although there are many types of PLC present they do follow certain standards for the user to choose easily.
Basic Function of PLC
For understanding the basic PLC working let us assume a simple example as shown below.
Let us say in this setup we have to turn ON the bulb for the first fifty seconds and turn OFF the bulb for the following twenty seconds then we have to use the switch in the circuit to close and open the loop continuously.
This is a simple but very tiresome task for a human and it is not cost-productive to buy a timer relays for this type of issue every single time.
In all those cases we can use a single PLC to solve the problem.
is given.
This is just a simple setup and a PLC has the ability to control much larger and more complex processes like PWM control, Sensing, etc.
A PLC is usually designed in a way for the customer so that he/she will be able to customize the PLC functioning depending on the application and need.
Block Diagram of PLC
Now let us look at the important modules present in the PLC.
which is required by the CPU and other modules.
Usually, PLC works on 12V and 24V power rail.
This module is the most protected as it is the core of functioning for the entire PLC.
CPU module consists of a microprocessor or microcontroller, program memory, flash memory & RAMS memory.
Flash memory or ROM memory stores operating system, driver and application program.
RAM is used by the microprocessor to access data and information.
The function of CPU is to execute the program stored in the memory and act according to the written instructions.
So basically CPU reads the input data from sensors to process and finally sends an appropriate response based on the program.
is used by the processor for providing a response to the outside world.
This module is used for establishing communication between PC and PLC.
The basic function is to reprogram the microprocessor of PLC.
Types of PLC (Programmable Logic Controller)
The PLC is divided into two types namely fixed (or compact PLC) and modular PLC.
It is usually a low-end PLC which is popular in many industries.
Compact PLC has a fixed number of I/O modules and external I/O cards and they cannot be extended later to make a more complex setup.
You can see a fixed PLC in the below figure.
Modular PLC permits multiple expansions by stacking ‘Modulesᾠparallel.
I/O ports of the modular PLC can be increased for more complex operations in the industry.
Modular PLC is also easier to use because each component is independent of each other.
This type of PLC is popular in many industries
Arduino vs PLC (Programmable Logic Controller)
are already present in the market and are available cheaper compared to conventional PLC.
So Arduino-PLC is becoming popular these days and its applications will increase more in the future.
These are certain differences between the Arduino PLC & conventional PLC and a few of them are mentioned below.
Needed External Components to Work as PLC
Does not need additional external components
Universally accepted
Promoted mainly in Industries
Low cost
High cost
Need to learn basic programming to rewrite the Arduino program
Only needed basic operating technique for reprogramming the PLC
Reprogramming is relatively difficult
Reprogramming is relatively easy
Satisfactory performance
High performance
Cannot work in harsh conditions
Can work on harsh conditions
Compact and Small
Bulky and heavy
Stacking cannot be used to further the PLC operation of Arduino PLC
Stacking can be used to further the PLC operation of normal PLC
More communication options
Less communication options
Easy to replace and repair
Hard to replace and repair
Lesser options for choosing
Many options for choosing
that are presently in the market.
1. Industrial Shields Arduino PLCs
is a popular company that provides Arduino based PLC shields for many industrial applications.
The shields that are popularly used are briefly discussed below.
ARDBOX is an Arduino based PLC designed for small and medium-scale industrial applications.
The picture of ARDBOX is shown below.
are given below.
Input Voltage
12Vor 24V
Rated Power
30Watt
Maximum Current
1.5A
Clock Speed
16MHz
Size
100x45x115 mm
Programming language
Arduino IDE.
Flash Memory
32KB of which 4KB are used by bootloader
SRAM
2.5KB
EEPROM
1KB
Communications
I2C -- USB -- RS232 -- RS485 -- SPI -- TTL
TOTAL Input points
10
TOTAL Output points
10
PWM Isolated Output
to 24Vdc
I max: 70 mA
Galvanic Isolation
Diode Protected for Relay
Rated Voltage: 24Vdc
M-DUINO is an Arduino based PLC designed for small and medium-scale industrial applications.
The picture of the PLC is shown below.
The M-DUINO is designed based on the ARDUINO MEGA board, so all the technical specifications of the MEGA board are M-DUINO specifications.
The basic features and technical specifications of M-DUINO are given below.
and a 2.4ᾠTFT Touch Screen, in order to make it suitable for Industrial IoT Applications and other factory robotics applications.
to help beginners quickly get started development.
For advanced users,PLDuino has also made it possible to pop the cover and explore inside the PLC so as to customize the hardware as required for their application, the full schematics and component specs are also available online.
The complete specifications of PLDuino is show in the picture below
3. Controllino Arduino PLCs
is nothing but an industrialized Arduino.
It combines the flexibility and open-source nature of the Arduino ecosystem with the safety and reliability of industrial-grade PLCs.
The company provides three modules which are designed based on three Arduino boards.
:
It is designed on Arduino Uno board.
Input Voltage
12V or 24V
Operating temperature
5oC to 55oC
Maximum Relay Current
6A
Clock Speed
16MHz
Size
36x90x60 mm
Programming language
Arduino IDE.
Flash Memory
32KB of which 0.5KB are used by the boot loader
SRAM
2KB
EEPROM
1KB
Communications
I2C1ᾠUSB ᾠSPI
TOTAL Input points
8
TOTAL Output points
8
board.
Input Voltage
12V or 24V
Operating temperature
0oC to 55oC
Maximum Output relay Current
6A
Clock Speed
16MHz
Size
72x90x62mm
Programming language
Arduino IDE
Flash Memory
256KB
SRAM
8KB
EEPROM
4KB
Communications
I2C1,Ethernet Port, USB ,SPI
TOTAL Input points
12
TOTAL Output points
12, relay output-10
Mega PLC is designed on ATMEGA2560 Atmel microcontroller or on Arduino Mega board.
Input Voltage
12V or 24V
Operating temperature
0oC to 55oC
Maximum Output relay Current
6A
Clock Speed
16MHz
Size
107x90x62mm
Programming language
Arduino IDE
Flash Memory
256KB
SRAM
8KB
EEPROM
4KB
Communications
I2C1,Ethernet Port, USB ,SPI
TOTAL Input points
21
TOTAL Output points
24, relay output-16
Advantages of Arduino PLC
Can be purchased at a low cost.
Can be programmed using Arduino IDE software.
High compatibility.
High room for adjustments.
Easy to replace compared to conventional PLC.
Disadvantages of Arduino PLC
Very few choices are available for selection.
Not suitable for high scale applications.
Sensitive compared to conventional PLC.
Required more maintenance.
Less professional.
tutorial/emc-testing-process-and-requirements-for-emc-compliance
EMC Testing Process and Requirements for EMC Compliance
, almost all electronic products designed for commercial use and legal sales, are required to possess one or more certifications as a proof that the product complies with certain regulations/guidelines and has passed related tests.
There are tonnes of regulations and they differ from place to place, sometimes with minor differences, but for every location where an electronic device is to be sold, it must meet the standards specified by the governing body in that location.
from country to country.
What is EMC?
and it is a process that exists to provide a means through which the ability of a device to operate in an electromagnetic environment can be verified.
All electrical and electronic systems or devices emit some level of Electromagnetic waves that could interfere with the operations of other devices when they are connected or place in close proximity to one another.
This interference could cause the devices to malfunction in such a way that could be harmful to the users or just render the product unusable.
Preventing and reducing the possibilities of this happening, was what led to the development of EMC requirements, so as to provide a common base on which electrical/electronic products/systems are evaluated for quality and functional safety.
is a measure of radiation emanating from a device along with its possible consequence while EMC, on the other hand, is the property of a system or device that ensures it behaves the way it was designed when in an environment with EMI Interference.
Importance of EMC
as the tests would help highlight any potential issues with the product before production, giving the manufacturer the opportunity to fix the problem without incurring the costs and embarrassment associated with recalling a product from the market or servicing warranties.
which brings about customer trust and definitely increased sales.
EMC Laws and Certification Requirements
, the FCC specifies the rules on EMC testing with rules like the FCC part 15 rules, which defines the max amount of unlicensed radio frequency interference that can be produced by different devices.
On certification in the US, devices are awarded the FCC mark.
In the EU the CE mark which is only awarded after a product has been certified is required for product sales.
In Africa, countries like South Africa require a “Certificate of Complianceᾠwhich is issued by the South African Bureau of Standards (SABS), and Countries like Nigeria leverage on the IEC/CISPR standards.
The severity of the punishment for non-compliance varies from country to country, as compliance is still voluntary in certain developing countries, but as the countries grow, and the effects of EMI becomes more prominent, it is no doubt that tighter legislation will begin to arise around it.
EMC Testing Process
There are 3 main categories of issues in electronic devices that are monitored by EMC.
The categories include;
Emission
Susceptibility
Immunity
Emission refers to deliberate or accidental production of electromagnetic energy by any source.
For electronic devices, EMC tests are designed to check for unwanted emissions from the device and the countermeasures which may be taken in order to reduce and prevent them from negatively impacting other devices around them.
, with conducted emissions have done along with cables and wiring, while radiated (Inductive and capacitive) is measured in all directions around the device.
Radiated emission monitoring is very important for devices that will be used in close proximity to other electronic devices.
It is carried out using antennas as transducers, while tools like RF Current Clamps or Line Impedance Stabilization Networks (LISN) are used as transducers for conducted emissions.
The transducers are connected to a specialized EMI test receiver or analyzer which incorporates bandwidths and detectors based on the requirements in different International EMC Standards.
Susceptibility refers to the tendency of one electrical equipment (Usually referred to as the victim) to break down or malfunction when in the vicinity of emissions from another device (EMI).
For Radiated susceptibility, testing usually involves the use of a high-powered source of electromagnetic radiation and a radiating antenna to direct the energy to theDUT(device under test).
For Conducted susceptibility, on the other hand, testing is usually done using high-powered signal generators along with a current clamp or some other type of transformer to inject the interference on the cable.
Like all compliance testing, for both tests, the standard documents specify what the test environment should be, some equipment to be used and their calibration.
In most standards, Open-Area Test Sites (OATS) are the recommended test sites but in recent times, tests are carried out indoors using specialized EMC test Chambers like the anechoic and reverberation chamber.
Some variations in the descriptions given above may be observed due to the difference in the devices.
The Immunity of an electronic device refers to the ability of electronic equipment to function correctly in the presence of electromagnetic interference.
While immunity by definition can be said to be the inverse of susceptibility, they are often used interchangeably.
And by determining their levels, the ability of the electronic device to work properly in face of EM Interference can be verified.
Getting ready for your EMC Compliance Testing
of the equipment required for the test, which makes owning them a bad idea, and outsourcing it to (also expensive, several thousand USD/test day) accredited compliance labs is usually a better option.
This is usually quite a difficult moment for the company and project managers as changes cannot be made during the test, meaning the product has to be sent back to the design team for a redesign and more thousands of dollars will need to be forked out for a retest.
that could be broadly classified under two subheadings, including;
Design
Pre-compliance Testing
The smartest design play (for products on which it is acceptable) is to use Pre-certified modules in product development, as it ensures a gross reduction in the amount of effort that goes into the certification of your product.
However, factoring EMC Compliance into the design of a new product involves evaluating (based on the scenarios in which the product will be used), the possible;
EMI sources (internal or external) and signal type.
The nature of the “Victimᾠand the significance of possible malfunction.
Coupling path to the “Victimᾠ- your device (in case of external) or other devices around it.
Minimizing interference during the design involves reducing internal EMI sources by paying attention to “littleᾠthings like the type of switch you are using, and a bit more weighty things like the connection/communication interfaces you are using, the frequency on which it operates and possible interference from external sources.
By examining the environment in which a device is to be installed/used, the nature of victims or potential emitters, and the significance of possible malfunction they can cause, can be accessed and effectively considered in the design.
that is tailored towards the conditions that will be used during the compliance testing.
While it may cost you just a little less than what you might pay for a day with an accredited lab, it will increase the chances of the device passing the test on the first try, lower the overall test cost, and reduce your time to market.
Conclusion
While preparing for certifications like EMC is easy for large organizations, for startups, and small companies, it is a different ball game, due to a shortage offunds and the need to test several assumptions during their early days.
However, startups can mitigate the risks involved by ensuring that the design team, as early as possible during the design process, factor EMI/EMC considerations into their design process.
In teams where the knowledge of the certifications is scarce, they can choose to work with consultants with experience along these lines to provide support for the team.
Doing this will not only help prepare the product for future certification but also help them deliver a product that is reliable to their customers.
tutorial/butterworth-filters-first-order-and-second-order-low-pass-butterworth-filters
Butterworth Filter: First Order and Second Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter
Electric filters have many applications and are extensively used in many signal processing circuits.
It is used for choosing or eliminating signals of selected frequency in a complete spectrum of a given input.
So the filter is used for allowing signals of chosen frequency pass through it or eliminate signals of chosen frequency passing through it.
, but most popular differentiation is based on,
Analog or digital
Active or passive
Audio or radio-frequency
Frequency selection
Analog or Digital Filters
We know signals generated by the environment are analog in nature while the signals processed in digital circuits are digital in nature.
We have to use corresponding filters for analog and digital signals for getting the desired result.
So we have to use analog filters while processing analog signals and use digital filters while processing digital signals.
Active or Passive Filters
The filters are also divided based on the components used while designing the filters.
If the design of the filter is completely based on passive components (like resistor, capacitor & inductor) then the filter is called passive filter.
On the other hand, if we use an active component (op-amp, voltage source, current source) while designing a circuit then the filter is called an active filter.
as they hold many advantages.
A few of these advantages are mentioned below:
No loading problem: We know in an active circuit we use an op-amp which has very high input impedance and low output impedance.
In that case when we connect an active filter to a circuit, then the current drawn by op-amp will be very negligible as it has very high input impedance and thereby circuit experience no burden when the filter is connected.
Gain adjustment flexibility: In passive filters, the gain or signal amplification is not possible as there will be no specific components to perform such a task.
On the other hand in an active filter, we have op-amp which can provide high gain or signal amplification to the input signals.
Frequency adjustment flexibility: Active filters have higher flexibility when adjusting the cutoff frequency when compared to passive filters.
Filters based on Audio or Radio Frequency
The components used in the design of filter changes depending on the application of filter or where the setup is used.
For example, R-C filters are used for audio or low-frequency applications while L-C filters are used for radio or high-frequency applications.
Filters based on Frequency Selection
The filters are also divided based on the signals passed through the filter
The frequency response of the low pass filter is shown below.
Here, the dotted graph is the ideal low pass filter graph and a clean graph is the actual response of a practical circuit.
This happened because a linear network cannot produce a discontinuous signal.
As shown in figure after the signals reach cutoff frequency fH they experience attenuation and after a certain higher frequency the signals given at input get completely blocked.
The frequency response of a high pass filter is shown below.
Here, a dotted graph is the ideal high pass filter graph and a clean graph is the actual response of a practical circuit.
This happened because a linear network cannot produce a discontinuous signal.
As shown in the figure until the signals have a frequency higher than cutoff frequency fL they experience attenuation.
here.
Band reject filter function is the exact opposite of the bandpass filter.
All frequency signals having frequency value in the selected band range provided at the input gets blocked by the filter while signals of any other frequency are allowed to appear at the output.
Signals of any frequency are allowed to pass through this filter except they experience a phase shift.
But here you can see on the output graphs the desired and actual results are not exactly the same.
Though this error is allowed in many applications sometimes we need a more accurate filter whose output graph tends more towards the ideal filter.
This near ideal response can be achieved by using special design techniques, precision components, and high-speed op-amps.
here as it is the most popular one of the three.
:
It is an R-C(Resistor, Capacitor) & Op-amp (operational amplifier) based filter
It is an active filter so the gain can be adjusted if needed
The key characteristic of Butterworth is that it has a flat passband and flat stopband.
This is the reason it is usually called ‘flat-flat filterᾮ
for a better understanding.
First Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter
The figure shows the circuit model of the first-order low-pass Butter worth filter.
In the circuit we have:
Voltage ‘Vinᾠas an input voltage signal which is analog in nature.
Voltage ‘Voᾠis the output voltage of the operational amplifier.
Resistors ‘RFᾠand ‘R1ᾠare the negative feedback resistors of the operational amplifier.
There is a single R-C network (marked in the red square) present in the circuit hence the filter is a first-order low pass filter
‘RLᾠis the load resistance connected at the op-amp output.
If we use the voltage divider rule at point ‘V1’then we can get the voltage across the capacitor as,
V1 = [ -jXc / (R-jXc) ] Vin Here –jXc = 1/2fc
After substitution this equation we will have something like below
V1 = Vin / (1+j2fRC)
Now the op-amp here used in negative feedback configuration and for such a case the output voltage equation is given as,
V0 = ( 1 + RF / R1 ) V1 .
This is a standard formula and you can look into op-amp circuits for more details.
If we submit V1 equation into Vo we will have,
V0 = (1 + RF / R1) [Vin / (1 + j2fRC) ]
After rewriting this equation we can have,
V0 / Vin = AF / ( 1 + j(f/fL) )
In this equation,
V0 / Vin = gain of the filter as a function of frequency
AF = (1+RF / R1) = passband gain of the filter
f = frequency of the input signal
fL = 1 / 2RC = cutoff frequency of the filter.
We can use this equation to choose appropriate resistor and capacitor values to select the cutoff frequency of the circuit.
If we convert the above equation into a polar form we will have,
We can use this equation to observe the change in gain magnitude with the change in the frequency of the input signal.
So let us consider input frequency is very less than the cutoff frequency of the filter then,
If the input frequency is equal to the cutoff frequency of the filter then,
If the input frequency is higher than the cutoff frequency of the filter then,
for the above circuit we will have,
As seen in the graph, the gain will be linear until the frequency of the input signal crosses the cutoff frequency value and once it happens the gain decreases considerably so does the output voltage value.
Second-Order Butterworth Low Pass Filter
The figure shows the circuit model of the 2nd order Butterworth low pass filter.
In the circuit we have:
Voltage ‘Vinᾠas an input voltage signal which is analog in nature.
Voltage ‘Voᾠis the output voltage of the operational amplifier.
Resistors ‘RFᾠand ‘R1ᾠare the negative feedback resistors of the operational amplifier.
There is a double R-C network (marked in a red square) present in the circuit hence the filter is a second-order low pass filter.
‘RLᾠis the load resistance connected at the op-amp output.
values.
The derivation for the cutoff frequency is given as follows,
fH = 1 / 2(R2R3C2C3)1/2
The voltage gain equation for this circuit can also be found in a similar way as before and this equation is given below,
In this equation,
V0 / Vin = gain of the filter as a function of frequency
AF = (1 + RF/R1) passband gain of the filter
f = frequency of the input signal
fH = 1 / 2(R2R3C2C3)1/2 = cutoff frequency of the filter.
We can use this equation to choose appropriate resistor and capacitor values to select the cutoff frequency of the circuit.
Also if we choose the same resistor and capacitor in the R-C network then the equation becomes,
We can the voltage gain equation to observe the change in gain magnitude with the corresponding change in the frequency of the input signal.
So let us consider input frequency is very less than the cutoff frequency of the filter then,
If the input frequency is equal to the cutoff frequency of the filter then,
If the input frequency is really higher than the cutoff frequency of the filter then,
Similar to the first-order filter, the gain of the filter will be the same as op-amp gain up until the input signal frequency is less than the cutoff frequency.
But once the input signal frequency reaches cutoff frequency the gain marginally decreases as seen in case two.
And as the input signal frequency increases even further the gain gradually decreases until it reaches zero.
So the low pass Butterworth filter allows the input signal to appear at the output until the frequency of the input signal is lower than the cutoff frequency.
for the above circuit we will have,
will be more inclined towards the ideal filter graph when compared to a single-order Butterworth filter.
and so on.
The higher the order of the filter the more the gain graph leans to an ideal filter graph.
If we draw the gain graph for higher-order Butterworth filters we will have something like this,
Hence it is best to choose the order of a filter while keeping an eye on the required accuracy.
And then go to say the -6db cutoff frequency is described by the equation:
fc = 1/()
However, this is simply not true!Let’s get you to believe me.
Let’s make a circuit where R1=R2=160, and C1=C2=100nF (0.1uF).
Given the equation, we should have a -6db frequency of:
fc = 1/()
= 1/(2*160*100*10-9)
~ 9.947kHz
Let’s go ahead and simulate the circuit and see where the -6db point is:
Oh, it simulates to 6.33kHz NOT 9.947kHz; but the simulation is NOT WRONG!
stages of the filter.
A more accurate circuit to our equation would be:
And here we see our -6.0206db point simulates to 9.945kHz, much much closer to our calculated 9.947kHZ.
Hopefully, you believe me that there is an error! Now let’s talk about how the error came about, and why this is just bad engineering.
order low pass filter, with the impedance as follows.
And you get a simple transfer function of:
H(s) = (1/sC)/(R+1/sC) = 1/(sRC+1)
order filter, you get:
H(s) = H1(s) * H2(s).
(s) = 1/(sRC+1)
(s) = 1/(sRC+1).
(s)!
For simplicity, I am going to make R1 = R2 and C1 = C2, otherwise, the math gets really involved.
But we should be able to derive the actual transfer function and compare it to our simulations for validation when we are done.
= 1/sC in parallel with (R+1/sC), we can redraw the circuit as:
= 1/sC in parallel with (R+1/sC)
= 1/sC ||( R+1/sC); and is NOT 1/(sRC+1)!
So now lets grind through the math for our circuit; for the special case of R1=R2 and C1=C2.
We have:
V1/Vin = Z1/(R+Z1)
Z1 = 1/sC || (R+1/sC) = (sRC+1)/((sC)2R+2sC)
Vo/ V1 = 1/(sRC + 1)
And finally
Vo/Vin = [Z1/(R+Z1)] * [1/(sRC + 1)]
= [(sRC+1)/((sC)2R+2sC)/(R+(sRC+1)/((sC)2R+2sC))] * [1/(sRC + 1)]
= [1/(((sC)2R+2sC)R/(sRC+1) + 1)] * [1/(sRC + 1)]
= [(sRC+1)/((sCR)2+2sRC + sRC + 1)] * [1/(sRC + 1)]
= [(sRC+1)/((sCR)2+3sRC + 1)] * [1/(sRC + 1)]
Here we can see that:
+3sRC + 1) ‐
(s) = 1/(sRC + 1)
And..
Vo/Vin = H1(s)* H2(s) = [(sRC+1)/((sCR)2+3sRC + 1)] * [1/(sRC + 1)]
= 1/((sRC)2 + 3sRC + 1)
= 0.5
And we know when the magnitude of our transfer function is at 0.5, we are at the -6db frequency.
| = 0.5
So let’s solve for that:
|Vo/Vin| = |1/((sRC)2 + 3sRC + 1)| = 0.5
Let s = j, we have:
|1/((sRC)2 + 3sRC + 1)| = 0.5
|1/((jRC)2 + 3jRC + 1)| = 0.5
|((jRC)2 + 3jRC + 1)| = 2
|(-(RC)2 + 3jRC + 1)| = 2
|((1-(RC)2) + 3jRC| = 2
To find the magnitude, take the square root of the square of the real and imaginary terms.
) = 2
squaring both sides:
((1-(RC)2)2 + (3RC)2 = 4
Expanding:
= 4
= 4
+ 1 = 4
- 3 = 0
+ 7x - 3 = 0
Using the quadratic equation to solve for x
x = (-7 +/- sqrt(49 – 4*1*(-3)) / 2
= (-7 +/- sqrt(49 +12) / 2
= (-7 +/- ) / 2 = ( - 7) / 2
Remember
x = (RC)2
replacing x
(RC)2 = ( - 7) / 2
RC =
= ( ) / RC
)/ RC
RC‐6db) When R1=R2 and C1=C2
Ugly, you might not believe me, so read on‐r the original circuit I gave you:
fc = ( ) / 2*160*(100*10-9)
fc = (0.63649417747009060684924081342512) / 2*160*(100*10-9)
fc = 6331.3246620984375557174874117881 ~ 6.331kHz
If we go back to ouroriginal simulationfor this circuit we saw the -6db frequency at~6.331kHz which lines up exactly to our calculations!
Simulate this for other values, you will see the equation is correct.
order low pass filters we can use the equation
)
And if R1 = R2 and C1 = C2 we can use the equation:
order filters our equation (given R1=R2, C1=C2) becomes:
RC
RC
Warning, do not attempt to say:
fc = 0.6365/()
(s); but not the other way around, the filters are not symmetrical, so don’t make this assumption!
So if you are going to stay with your current equation, I would recommend a circuit that is more like this:
interview/pankaj-raut-ceo-of-dimensionnxg-on-ajnalens-ai-powered-smart-glasses
Pankaj Raut, CEO of DimensionNXG on AjnaLens - World’s first AI Powered (AR+VR) Smart glasses in India
ᾮ This wearable XR headset blends in the power of artificial intelligence and machine learning with Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR).
It can project holographic images into the real world and allow the user to interact with it in real-time just like interacting with a physical object.
Above all being a made-in-India product the price of AjnaLens is expected to be a lot more affordable compared with its peers, Microsoft’s HoloLens or Google’s Magic Leap.
Inspired by AjnaLens Circuit Digest approached Pankaj Raut, the CEO of Dimension NXG.
Raut is an electronics engineer graduated from the London South Bank University.
He has worked with the MIT Media Labs and on the 3D printing technology of iMakr.
In 2014 Raut met with Abhishek Tomar and Abhijit Patil in a Google start-up event and the trio went on with starting DimensionNXG.
Today, the companiesᾠfirst product Ajnalens is already into the B2B market and a B2C product is expected to be launched by 2020.
Curious to know more about AjnaLens the following questions were put forward to Pankaj Raut for which he replies‐
I (Pankaj Raut) believe tools; specifically, technology tools had a huge impact on human civilization.
Over the period of human evolution, we have used various tools to evolve.
Tools like a wheel, hammer, fire, etc have been critical in the evolution.
But the tool that has had the highest impact on human evolution is "computers".
Computers have impacted every aspect of human life, helping civilization advance at a spectacular rate.
In fact, computers have affected the human experience more than any other tool known to man—thus far.
Computers (Computing platform) itself has evolved over the years, from Mainframes to desktops, to laptops, to computers.
But through this evolution, one thing has remained the same; the digital content has always been locked down to the physical boundaries of the 2D screen.
But Wait....this is changing.
The digital and traditional “realᾠworlds unite, not as parallel universes, but as integrated elements, that will transform how you experience the world.
Computers are evolving to their most beautiful expression from a caterpillar to a butterfly.
and many more.
This tool has the power to transform industries like Healthcare, Education, Aerospace, construction, etc.
Dimension NXG has developed the next generation of computers- AI-Powered holographic computer “AjnaLensᾮ
Being in India and with a passion to ‘make in Indiaᾠwe have faced a lot of Technological Barriers
AR/VR Optics: Getting the right optics is very critical in the AR/VR setup.
The challenge/barrier was the availability of the right technological infrastructure to experiment and test optics.
There are a lot of optics labs available worldwide, but not in India that can support us in what we do.
We solved this by making our own small optics lab within the company.
3D World Sensing: After getting the optics right, the second important factor in AR VR is 3D World sensing.
This enables the user to place holograms over the real world.
The barrier again was the right infrastructure and not enough talent available in India for this.
We had to develop it within a team.
Multiple technologies come together to make this happen.
Optics
Dynamic Holograms
3D World Sensing (Computer vision)
This is the most natural interface for interacting with things.
We are aiming to make interacting with holograms as simple as interacting with a physical object version of the same hologram.
to achieve human-equivalent intelligence to a head-mounted device.
The advantage of transforming a head-mounted device with human-equivalent intelligence allows the device to assist humans in tasks varying from day to day life tasks to complicated tasks that generally require expertise to perform(E.g: surgery, industry devices maintenance, etc).
The artificial intelligence-powered device also aims to assist humans to unlock their true potential by letting them experience higher dimensions of existence across time and space.
Ajnalens is just a tool for the industry to solve its problems.
The overarching aim of enterprises is to decrease their cost and increase revenues.
Ajnalens works as a tool to help enterprises achieve this during various stages of its business from product design to After-Sales service.
Currently, we are seeing a lot of use of AjnaLens in
Training
Knowledge transfer
Machine/equipment/factory maintenance & repair
Remote assistance
This is confidential.
But we have seen a huge impact of AjnaLens on the Indian Defence.
Drastically decrease cost, time, and errors by giving advance capabilities to the defence.
We currently are working with Indian ARMY, Navy, DRDO.
to a lot of its challenges, and advancements.
I urge the readers to look up and apply for it.
The upcoming market in India for AR/VR is huge, we are already seeing all large Indian Enterprises - Private/Public and Govt.
already running pilots and implementing large AR VR scale solutions.
We have already started with B2B doing a lot of implementations, but we are seeing a lot of interest from B2C customers.
So we will be releasing the product for B2C next year (2020).
Again the biggest challenge with setting up the supply chain was the availability of existing infrastructure.
We had to find ways around it.
We are sourcing components around the world.
We admire those who look past limitations and imagine new possibilities, Stand in opposition to the world today, and create better tomorrow.
We are a startup driven by passion and are looking for passionate people who want to make a difference to the world.
We do not look for Formal education, but the passion for this technology.
article/what-causes-battery-degradation-in-electric-vehicles-and-how-to-avoid-it
What causes Battery Degradation in Electric vehicles and How to avoid it?
article if you want to learn more about EV batteries and how they are used inEVs.
What are the reasons for battery degradation?
and corrosion also cause battery degradation.
of the battery.
will affect the negative electrode of the battery.
Overcharge causes the formation of dendrite on the anode and also causes a sudden increment in voltage which is associated with the rise in the internal resistance of the battery.
Overcharging also causes an increase in internal temperature which may cause thermal runaway and battery fire.
due to the slow down of lithium-ion intercalation into the anodes.
This will lead to the deposition of lithium ions on the electrode surface and causes the battery degradation.
which further increases the internal temperature batteries.
If such heat left uncontrolled it not only causes battery degradation but also causes Thermal runaway.
The presence of any trace of water in manufacturing the battery leads to corrosion.
LiPF6, the Most commonly used lithium salt in the electrolyte is reactive to water and forms hydro uoric acid.
This hydro uoric acid is corrosive to metallic collector causes battery degradation.
How to increase the life of an EV battery?
we have to take proper care of batteries for the long life and optimal performance of the electric vehicle.
In battery pack BMS won’t allow to charge the battery pack to 100% and won’t discharge it to 0%.
there will always be 10% buffer.
Fast charging leads to increment in battery temperature which further leads to battery degradation.
For the extended battery life avoid the fast charging when it is unnecessary.
It is always preferable to store the batteries in semi charged state.
while leaving your vehicle for long time charge it to 50% or discharge it to 50% .
C
tutorial/design-a-coil-air-core-ferrite-core-and-toroidal-core-winding
How to Design a Coil - Air Core, Ferrite Core and Toroidal Core Winding
Winding coils is not hard but quite time-consuming.
There are different methods of making coils, depending on the area of use and inductance needed.
Air cores are the most broadband but getting high inductances means using a lot of wire, they are also not the most efficient do to the magnetic field escaping the coil ᾠthis escaping magnetic can cause interference by inducting in nearby wires and other coils.
follow the link.
Air Cored Inductors
, which is then removed and the coil supports itself, sometimes the coil is coated in resin for higher mechanical stability.
Bigger coils with a lot of turns are commonly wound over a non-ferromagnetic former, such as a hollow plastic tube or a ceramic former (for high power RF coils) and then secured to the former with glue.
To wind them you first need to calculate the required wire diameter, because it has a lot of influence over total coil length.
is
(√I)*0.6=d, where I is RMS or DC current and d is wire diameter.
If the coils are used at low power levels the wire diameter is of not so high importance, 0.3mm is good for most applications and 0.12mm is good for canned if coils used are in transistor radio receivers.
If the coil is used in oscillator service the wire should be stiff, to prevent warping effects as they can change the inductance to some extent and cause frequency instability (driving).
Next, you need to know what diameter the coil needs to have.
It is recommended that the coil diameter is 50% to 80% coil length for optimum Q and those are dependant on how much space can the coil take up.
If the coil will be self-supporting you can use a bolt or a screw, wind the turns inside the grooves and remove the bolt by unscrewing it while holding the wire of the coil, this makes a very even and reproducible coil.
L is inductance in henries,
μr is relative permeability of the core (1 for air, plastic, ceramic, etc.
coils ),
n is the number of turns,
π is pi,
r is the radius of the coil in meters (from the middle of the wiring layer to the middle of the winding) or
half of the diameter (from the middle of the wiring layer through the middle to the middle of the wiring layer on the other side),
l is the length of the winding in meters,
and the long number on the back is the permeability of free space.
Another formula for inductance.
L = ( n2 .
d2) / 18d + 40l
This formula is used when winding a one-layer uniform coil with all turns being closely wound with no space between them.
The units are the same as with the above formula, except d which is coil diameter in meters.
you need a former, a source of wire, some fine sandpaper or a modeling knife (not shown) and a bit of superglue or double-sided tape to hold the wire in place.
see the linked article.
Then put through a hole in the former and out the other side.
The finished coil has its wires tinned by submerging them in solder on a piece of PCB laminate.
Winding Coils on Ferrite Rods
you have to rely on the double-sided tape or glue to hold the wire tightly.
Since the tape doesn’t always stick to the ferrite it is a good idea to first cover the rod with one to three layers of paper masking tape right under where the coil has to go and stick the tape over it.
You can use super glue to hold the wire in place instead of double-sided.
!
Put the ferrite rod in an electric drill, just like a drill bit and spin it slowly, the rod will rotate on its own, this way you can make high quality and high inductance coils with a lot of turns very quickly! If you have plastic formers for the rod, wind onto them first and then put them onto the coil and glue them in place.
made with the methods described above.
Toroidal Core Winding
, RFI chokes, SMPS power transformers, RF input filters, baluns, current transformers, and others.
) can be calculated by with this formula:
L(nH)=AL(nH/N2)*Turns2
After conversion, we get a formula for the number of turns needed for the required inductance:
Required turns = [L(nH) / AL(nH/N2)]1/2
,there is an online calculator that aids in the design of toroidal coils, just choose your core, plugin the required inductance and it gives the amount of wire and turns needed.
First pass one end of the wire through the hole, make sure that around 4cm stick out ᾠthis bit is called a pigtail.
Wind the pigtail around the core, leave 1cm to 2cm off and secure the rest with superglue.
Use the remaining length of wire to wind the rest of the coil, attach the longer end to a nail or a nail for easier winding.
Since the coil is expected to have a low inductance (around 3.6μH) in absence of a professional LCR meter it is better to use a GDM, as common micro-controller-based meters have very low accuracy when metering small inductances.
A 680pF capacitor was connected to the coil in parallel, along with a small coupling loop.
This circuit dipped at 3.5MHz (right), putting these values into a resonance calculator gives us around 3μH.
On the left, the meter is set to a different frequency, outside of the circuit resonance.
Calculated coils can give very different results when made in real life, due to parasitic capacitances and parallel self-resonance caused by them.
tutorial/supercapacitor-vs-battery-comparison-and-case-study
Supercapacitor vs Battery - Comparison and Case Study
But, nothing like that actually happened, because both Supercapacitors and Batteries are entirely different from each other and they have their own applications.
Almost all modern airbag controllers are powered by supercapacitors, because of their fast response time over batteries.
before you proceed further.
Power Density
But, for a supercapacitor, the power density varies from 2500 Wh per kg to 45000 Wh per kg.
That is much larger than the power density of the same rated batteries.
Cell voltage
for the same number of cells.
the circuit designer can choose three 5.5 volt supercapacitors in series.
Over the battery, this is an undoubtedly plus point of supercapacitors in space constraint situations or cost optimization for purposes.
Efficiency
is shown in the below figure.
However, it should be noted that Supercapacitor also generates nominal heat during operation.
Reusability and Lifespan
Battery's lifespan is highly dependable on the charging and discharging cycles.
In the case of Lithium and lead-acid batteries, the charging and discharging times are limited from 300 to 500 cycles, sometimes it can be a maximum of 1000 times.
The lifespan without the charging and discharging situation lithium batteries can last for a span of 7 years.
, while a Lead-Acid battery can last around 3-5 years only.
Discharge Voltage Factor
Therefore, while using batteries as a power source, one can use buck or boost regulator depending on the application requirements, but while using a supercapacitor, it is a popular choice to use a wide range boost converter for compensating the input voltage loss.
Charging Time
method is used.
it needs a very short period of time for getting a full charge.
Therefore, for the applications where the charge time is required to be very less, supercapacitors definitely win over the same capacity of batteries.
Cost
when used instead of batteries.
The cost sometimes gets very high such as 10 times higher when compared with the same capacity of the battery.
Risk factors
Lithium or lead-acid batteries require special care or attention during operating or charging conditions.
Especially for lithium-ion batteries, the charging topology needs to be configured in such a way that the battery should not be overcharged or charged with a higher capacity of current than the battery can actually accept.
This increases the risk of an explosion whenever the battery is overcharged or charged with a high current.
Not only in charging condition, but the batteries also need to be carefully operated during discharging situations.
Deep discharge condition could potentially damage the battery life.
Therefore, the battery needs to be disconnected from the load after it is reached to a certain level of charging state.
Also, the short circuit of a battery is a dangerous situation.
in terms of the above risk factors.
However, charging a supercapacitor using a higher voltage than its rating is potentially harmful to the supercapacitors.
But, when charging more than a single capacitor,it can become a complex job.
Case Study
Let's consider a situation where we want to light up 10 parallel LEDs for 1 hour.
For this application, let's find out, as an engineer should we consider using a supercapacitor or lithium battery?
Let's assume the LEDs draw 30mA of current at 2.5V.
Therefore, the wattage of 10 LEDs in parallel will be
2.5V x 0.03 x 10 = 0.75 Watt
Now, for 1 Hour of usage which is 3600 seconds, the energy required can be calculated as
3600 x 0.75 = 2700 Joules.
which is
x 10 x 2.52 = 31.25 Joules
Therefore, one needs at least 85 Supercapacitors in parallel with the same rating.
Obviously in this specific application battery will be the first choice.
But if this application changed into a specific application where the same amount of power is required only for 30 Seconds, Supercapacitor can be a choice as it can be charged very fast and can be used for a very long period of time.
Conclusion
as well as hybrid and organic electrolytic supercapacitors also in the market.
Different compositions have different working characteristics and specifications.
Supercapacitors have much more positive points in terms of the application then the batteries.
But, it also has negative sides compared with batteries.
Therefore, the uses of supercapacitors are highly dependable on the type of application.
tutorial/what-is-mems-various-mems-devices-and-applications
An Overview of Various MEMS Devices and their Applications
and it refers to micrometer-sized devices that have both electronic components and mechanical moving parts.
MEMS devices can be defined as the devices which have:
Size in micrometer (1micrometer to 100micrometer)
The flow of current in the system (Electrical)
And has moving parts inside it (Mechanical)
Below is the image of the Mechanical part of a MEMS device under a microscope.
This may not look amazing but do you know that the size of the gear is a 10micometer, which is half the size of human hair.
So this is quite interesting to know how such complex structures are embedded into a chip-sized only a few millimeters.
MEMS Devices and Applications
This technology was first introduced in the 1965’s but mass production has not started till 1980.
At present, there are more than 100billion MEMS devices currently active in various applications and they can be seen in mobile phones, laptops, GPS systems, Automobile, etc.
MEMS technology is incorporated in many electronic components and their number is growing day by day.
With the advancement in developing cheaper MEMS devices, we can see them taking over many more applications in the future.
As MEMS devices perform better than normal devices unless a better performing technology comes into play MEMS will stay on the throne.
In MEMS technology most notable elements are micro sensors and micro actuators which are appropriately categorized as transducers.
These transducers convert energy from one form to another.
In the case of microsensors, the device typically converts a measured mechanical signal into an electrical signal and a microactuator converts an electrical signal into mechanical output.
are explained below.
Accelerometers
Pressure sensors
Microphone
Magnetometer
Gyroscope
MEMS Accelerometers
set up shown below.
Here a mass is suspended with two springs in a closed space and the setup is considered to be at rest.
Now if the body suddenly starts moving forward then the mass suspended in the body experiences a backward force which causes a displacement in its position.
And because of this displacement springs get deformed as shown below.
This phenomenon also must be experienced by us when sitting in any moving vehicle like car, bus, and train, etc.
so the same phenomenon is used in designing the accelerometers.
as a moving part attached to the springs.
The entire setup will be as shown below.
In the diagram, we will consider the capacitance between the top moving plate and a fixed plate:
C1= e0A / d1
is the distance between them.
Here we can see that capacitance C1 value is inversely proportional to the distance between top moving the plate and fixed plate.
The capacitance between the bottom moving plate and fixed plate
C2= e0A / d2
is the distance between them
Here we can see that capacitance C2 value is inversely proportional to the distance between the bottom moving plate and fixed plate.
When the body is at rest both the top and bottom plates will be at equal distance from the fixed plate so capacitance C1 will be equal to capacitance C2.
But if the body suddenly moves forward then the plates get displaced as shown below.
At this time the capacitance C1 gets increased as the distance between the top plate and fixed plate decreases.
On the other hand capacitance, C2 gets decreases as the distance between the bottom plate and fixed plate increased.
This increase and decrease in capacitance is linearly proportional to the acceleration on the main body so higher the acceleration higher the change and lower the acceleration lesser the change.
or another circuit to get the appropriate current or voltage reading.
After getting the desired voltage or current value we can use that data for further analysis easily.
But if we use MEMS technology we can shrink the entire setup to a size of few micrometers making the device more applicable.
like smartphones easily.
MEMS Pressure sensors
We all know that when pressure is applied on an object it will strain until it reaches a breaking point.
This strain is directly proportional to applied pressure until a certain limit and this property is used to design a MEMS pressure sensor.
In the below figure you can see the structural design of a MEMS pressure sensor.
If we connect this capacitance to an R-C resonator then we can get frequency signals representing the pressure.
This signal can be given to a microcontroller for further processing and data processing.
MEMS Microphone
The design of the MEMS microphone is similar to the pressure sensor and the below figure shows the microphone internal structure.
If there is noise in the environment then the sound enters the device through an inlet.
This sound causes the diaphragm to vibrate making the distance between the diaphragm and fixed plate to change continuously.
This, in turn, causes the capacitance C1 to change continuously.
If we connect this changing capacitance to the corresponding processing chip we can get the electrical output for the changing capacitance.
Because the changing capacitance directly relates to noise in the first place, this electrical signal can be used as a converted form of the input sound.
MEMS Magnetometer
Most MEMS magnetometers use Hall Effect, so we will discuss how this method is used to measure the magnetic field strength.
For that let us consider a conductive plate and have the ends of one side connected to a battery as shown in the figure.
Here you can see the electrons flow direction, which is from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.
Now if a magnet is brought near to the top of the conductor then electrons and protons in the conductor get distributed as shown in the below figure.
If a simple system is designed by using MEMS, based on the above model then we will get a transducer that senses field strength and provides linearly proportional electrical output.
MEMS Gyroscope
MEMS gyroscope is very popular and is used in many applications.
For example, we can find MEMS gyroscope in airplanes, GPS systems, smartphones, etc.
MEMS gyroscope is designed based on the Coriolis Effect.
For understanding the principle and working of MEMS gyroscope, let us look into its internal structure.
Here S1, S2, S3&S4 are the springs used for connecting the outer loop and second loop.
While S5, S6, S7&S8 are springs used for connecting the second loop and mass ‘Mᾮ This mass will be resonating along the y-axis as shown by the directions in the figure.
Also, this resonation effect is usually achieved by using the electrostatic force of attraction in MEMS devices.
Under resting conditions, the capacitance between any two plates on the top layer or bottom will be the same, and it will remain the same until there will be a change in distance between these plates.
Suppose if we mount this set up on to a rotating disk then there will be a certain change in the position of plates as shown below.
that because of the sudden change in direction there is displacement present in the inner layer.
This displacement also causes the distance between capacitor plates on both the bottom and top layers to change.
As explained in previous examples change in distance causes the capacitance to change.
And we can use this parameter to measure the rotational speed of the disk on which the device is placed.
Many other MEMS devices are designed using MEMS technology and their number is also increasing every day.
But all these devices carry a certain similarity in working and design, so by understanding the few examples mentioned above we can easily understand the working of other similar MEMS devices.
tutorial/what-is-poe-and-how-power-over-ethernet-works
What is PoE and How Power over Ethernet Works
What is PoE (Power over Ethernet)?
is called PoE.
How Power over Ethernet works and why it is used
to each peripheral that connects to the network.
For example, if you have 10 spy cameras distributed across the entire building, in that case, it needs 10 power supply units to provide power to them and that is not the main problem.
The main problem is wiring 220 power lines near each peripheral which is not practical, so using PoE is the best option for connecting all peripherals to the central system.
Now striping Ethernet cable, for connecting each peripheral to the central system, is itself a tedious task, so for that PoE injector and PoE splitter are used.
we can skip all the hassle of identifying the colors, wire stripping, soldering and dressing the loose ends.
Now let us look at the function of these devices and how they can be used.
PoE Injector
This device has two input ports and one output port.
The first input is for connecting normal Ethernet cable and another input is for connecting DC power supply, while the output is used for connecting PoE Ethernet cable.
On Input we have: Normal Ethernet connection + DC power supply
On output, we have: PoE Ethernet (Which can be used for connecting PoE devices)
So the PoE injector function is providing PoE Ethernet by taking in normal Ethernet connection and DC power supply.
PoE Splitter
This device has one input port and two output ports.
The input is for connecting PoE Ethernet cable while the output ports provide normal Ethernet & DC power.
On Input we have: PoE Ethernet
On output we have: Normal Ethernet connection + DC power supply
So the function of PoE splitter is quite the opposite of PoE Injector which is to split the PoE Ethernet connection into normal Ethernet and usable DC power supply.
PoE Extender
A PoE Extender is used when there is a network span over large distances such as shopping malls, hotels, restaurants, office buildings, businesses, academic campuses, and sporting venues.
In those places normal 100meters Ethernet connections can’t be of used and this is when PoE Extender comes to play.
This device can be used to extend Ethernet network devices beyond the basic 100m distance limit making it a viable option for many cases.
These daysᾠperipheral devices support PoE Ethernet so we can skip the splitter and directly connect the cable to the device as shown in the figure.
Now, this setup will work if there are one or two appliances but if there are multiple appliances then buying PoE Injector for every device is not the best solution.
For such specific cases, we have PoE Hub which can replace multiple PoE Injectors.
PoE Hub
PoE hub functioning is similar to PoE injector except it takes in many Ethernet connections while providing that many PoE Ethernet outputs.
The hub is best used if you have many PoE devices on one end and normal Ethernet connectivity providing a server on the other.
The working of the hub can be easily understood from the below block diagram.
Till now we assumed there are free lines available in the Ethernet cable which can be used for PoE without much difficulty.
? Well, this case is not a rare one as high-speed internet and data transfer systems do use all the data lines.
Even in those cases, PoE is still achievable but it becomes complex when compared to the previous configuration.
which adds to cost unlike before where we can simply strip the unused lines at both ends and use it for our convenience.
PoE Switch
In the block diagram, you can see how multiple PoE devices are connected to the PoE switch with Ethernet cables and the PC communicates with these devices through the PoE switch.
A PoE switch requires one Uplink to an existing network to further expand and increase ports.
PoE Standards
PoE devices follow certain standards for data communication and power delivery.
So these standards are followed while designing these devices.
Usually, there are four types of standards followed while designing these devices and they are divided based on their power handling capacity.
IEEE802.3af
Type 1
15.4Watt
IEEE802.3at/PoE+
Type 2
30.8Watt
IEEE802.3bt/UPoE
Type 3
60Watt
IEEE802.3bt
Type 4
90Watt
You can look into this table and choose the appropriate PoE Switch, Injector or Router for your PoE devices.
PoE Applications
Smart lighting system: The lighting system can be controlled through a server or remote PC which will come in handy.
Smart home: PoE makes smart home design easy because in smart home network connectivity is established at every corner of the living space while every appliance shares data with each other and this can be achieved more easily by using PoE.
Security system: Office and Institutes can increase their productivity by installing PoE devices for security.
PoE also used for RFID and alarm systems.
Limitations of PoE
Although everything looks green here but that is not the case.
There are many drawbacks for PoE and a couple of them are discussed below.
Cost: As usual, any technology installation comes down to money.
Although by installing PoE we can save money but it only applies if there are more than four to five devices in the area.
This is because installing PoE will cost you thousands but you get the job done with a few hundred if there are only one or two PoE devices.
So PoE installation is not suitable for homes where PoE devices are limited to one or two.
In that case, buying an extender cord or an adapter will get the job done instead of spending a huge amount on the PoE setup.
Complexity: Installing the PoE setup will add complexity to anyone needless to say.
Like you have to understand new terms on PoE and hassle over buying matching systems whenever you want to install a new PoE device to your home or office.
tutorial/impulse-voltage-generator-circuit-and-working
Impulse Voltage Generator / Marx Generator ᾠCircuit Diagram, Working Principle and Applications
So, let’s get started.
However, in this article, we will discuss impulse voltage generators.
Impulse Voltage Waveform
To understand the impulse voltage better let’s take a look at the impulse voltage waveform.
In the below image, a single peak of high voltage Impulse waveform is shown
which is defined by the difference between 3rd-time stamp ts3 and ts0.
Single Stage Impulse Generator
that is shown below
that will discharge the charging capacitor.
The resistor and RD and RE control the wave shape.
If the above image observed carefully, we can find that the G or spark gap has no electrical connection.
Then how does the load capacitance get the high voltage? Here is the trick and by this one, the above circuit acts as an impulse generator.
The capacitor is charged until the capacitor’s charged voltage is enough to cross the spark gap.
An electrical impulse generated across the spark gap and high voltage gets transferred from the left electrode terminal to the right electrode terminal of the spark gap and thus making it a connected circuit.
can be done by calculating the output voltage waveform with
v(t) = [V0 / CbRd(α ᾠβ)] (e ᾠαt ᾠe ᾠβt)
Where,
α = 1 / RdCb
β = 1 / ReCz
Disadvantages of Single Stage Impulse Generator
Therefore, for a single-stage impulse voltage generator circuit, it gets quite difficult to get optimum efficiency even after using large DC power supplies.
The spheres that are used for the gap connection also required very high in size.
The corona that is gets discharged by the impulse voltage generation is very difficult to suppress and reshape.
The electrode life gets shorten and requires replacement after a few cycles of repetition.
Marx generator
can be seen in the below image.
The above circuit uses 4 capacitors (there can be n number of capacitors) that are charged by a high voltage source in parallel charging condition by the charge resistors R1 to R8.
When this occurs the first spark gap connects two capacitors (C1 and C2).
Therefore the voltage across the first capacitor gets double by two voltages of C1 and C2.
Subsequently, the third spark gap automatically breaks down because the voltage across the third spark gap is high enough and it starts to add the third capacitor C3 voltage into the stack and this goes on up to the last capacitor.
Finally, when the last and final spark gap is reached, the voltage is large enough to break the last spark gap across the load which has a larger gap between the spark plugs.
will be much lower than the actual desired value.
However, this last spark point needs to have larger gaps because, without this, the capacitors don’t get into a fully charged condition.
Sometimes, the discharge is done intentionally.
There are several ways to discharge the capacitor bank in the Marx generator.
Pulsing an additional trigger electrode is an effective way to intentionally trigger the Marx generator during fully charge condition or in a special case.
The additional trigger electrode is called as Trigatron.
There are different shapes and sizes Trigatron available with different specifications.
Ionized air is an effective path that is beneficial to conduct the spark gap.
The ionization is done by using a pulsed laser.
The reduction of air pressure is also effective if the spark gap is designed inside a chamber.
Disadvantages of the Marx Generator
Marx generator uses resistors to charge the capacitor.
Thus the charge time gets higher.
The capacitor that is closer to the power supply gets charged faster than the others.
This is due to the increased distance because of increased resistance between the capacitor and the power supply.
This is a major drawback of the Marx generator unit.
Due to the same reason as previously described, as the current flows through the resistors, the efficiency of the Marx generator circuit is low.
The repetitive cycle of discharge through the spark gap shortens the lifetime of the electrodes of a spark gap that needs to be replaced from time to time.
Due to the high charge time, the repetition time of the impulse generator is very slow.
This is another major drawback of the Marx generator circuit.
Application of Impulse Generator Circuit
as well as in lasers, fusion and plasma device industries.
of electronic devices are also tested using impulse generator circuits.
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